Combat Sports Strength and Conditioning - Microcycle & Within-Session Programming [Part 2 of Programming Layers Series]

Given the complexities of combat sports performance, strength and conditioning programming must match the demands of the training environment by being adaptable and holistic. In order to achieve this, programming must consider all layers and timelines of training.

Programming and training periodization happens on 4 time scales (or layers) - Within session, on the microcyclic scale, mesocyclic scale and the macrocyclic scale. Each layer can be considered the lenses of which the S&C coach views training and physical preparation and must be planned accordingly.

In this article, we’ll discuss several strategies and philosophies I use when preparing combat sport athletes, which layers they can be utilized in and how a better understanding of programming can help us more effectively coach high performance combat sport athletes.

Some of the concepts I talk about will be familiar to those who have read my eBook “The Strength & Conditioning Handbook for Combat Sports”, while others maybe new to some of you.

In part 2 (this part), we will discuss the specifics week to week and day to day programming (higher resolution view).

Read PART 1 on Macrocyclic and Mesocyclic Training Here

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the microcyclic layer

Programming on the microcyclic layer is concerned with optimizing training on the weekly level. Given the amount of sessions in a combat sports athletes’ schedule, we must consolidate them by avoiding any interference effects and create systems that can manage training stressors more consistently. Here are some guiding principles and strategies that you’ll find in my S&C programs.

High/low structure

I use a high/low structure to guide the initial parts of my program planning; a system popularized by track coach Charlie Francis to categorize running intensity and it’s affect on speed adaptations.

“High” training days consists of training modalities that require a large amount of neuromuscular-activation, a large energy expenditure and/or a high cognitive load - all stimuli that require a relatively longer period of full recovery (48-72 hours). Conversely, “low” training days are less neurally, bioenergetically and mentally demanding, requiring a relatively shorter period of full recovery (~24 hours).

Adapted to the world of combat sports, all training modalities, from sparring, technique work, heavy bag training to weight room sessions can all be categorized into high and low. This allows us to visualize the training and recovery demands of sessions throughout a full week of training.

Ideally, we would schedule training so that we alternate high and low training days so that the athlete is adequately rested for the most demanding sessions, but the reality of the fight game makes this challenging in practice. Some sessions, on paper, fall in between high and low categories in terms of physiological load. Regardless, using a high/low structure is a great start to help manage training stress within a week of training.

Condensed conjugate method

First of all, the conjugate method (CM), originally created for powerlifting performance by Louie Simmons of Westside Barbell uses Max Effort (close to 1RM lifting), Dynamic Effort (low % of 1RM performed in high-velocity fashion and Repetition Effort (moderate % of 1RM performed for ~8-15 reps) all within a training week. The CM is based on a concurrent system (I discussed this in part 1, where training aims to develop several physical qualities within a shorter time frame - week and month).

The first time hearing of the condensed conjugate method (CMM) was from Phil Daru, S&C coach to several elite combat sport athletes out in Florida, USA who adapted the CM method to fit the tighter training schedule of fighters.

What is originally a 4-day split (CM) is condensed into 2 days (CMM). This is what the general structure/training split looks like within a week.

Day 1:
Lower Body Dynamic Effort
Upper Body Max Effort
Repetition Effort Focusing On Weaknesses

Day 2:
Upper Body Dynamic Effort
Lower Body Max Effort
Repetition Effort Focusing On Weaknesses

Max effort and dynamic effort training are both performed on the same day, however, to mitigate neuromuscular fatigue, they are rotated based on upper body and lower body lifts. If upper body compound lifts like heavy presses and rows are performed that day (max effort), bounds and jumps will be trained for the lower body to avoid excessive overload.

Similar to most concurrent-based training splits, a large benefit comes from the fact that movements are trained within the whole spectrum of the force-velocity curve (see figure below). Max effort training improves the body’s ability to create maximum amounts of force - grinding strength, while dynamic effort trains the body to be able to produce force at a faster rate - explosive strength/strength. Repetition effort is then used to target weak points and to create structural adaptations like muscle hypertrophy and joint robustness.

The CMM also shares some of the drawbacks of concurrent-based training set-ups. Single athletic qualities progress slower since multiple are being developed at the same time, however, this is only a minor issue considering the mixed demands of many combat sports. Certain modifications can be made to the template or perhaps block periodization can be utilized (see Part 1 of the article) if working with athletes that are clearly force-deficient or velocity-deficient (see the next section on velocity-split). Nonetheless, a pragmatic way to organize both high-velocity and slow-velocity exercises within a training week. I’ve had success implementing this type of training split in my combat sports S&C programs.

Velocity-split

Sticking with the theme of a concurrent-based system within the training week, another way to set up a microcycle is using a velocity-split. For example, in a 2-day training split, high-velocity exercises and low-velocity exercises would be trained separately.

Day 1:
Upper Body Plyometrics & Ballistics
Lower Body Plyometrics & Ballistics
Speed-Strength Exercises (Loaded throws, Olympic Lift deratives, Kettlebell swings, etc)

Day 2:
Upper Body Max Strength Lifts
Lower Body Max Strength Lifts
Repetition Effort Training (70-85% of 1RM)
Isolation Exercises

With concurrent training, we risk pulling an athlete’s physiology in opposite directions. This is avoided by grouping similar stressors together within each training day, throughout the week.

Additionally, this can be used to isolate high- or low-velocity training in order to target the weaknesses within an athlete’s force-velocity profile. Using the example split above, Day 2 would play a more important role in the training of a force-deficient athlete while Day 1 would be more effective for velocity-deficient athletes. We are still training both ends of the spectrum within a week but manipulate the training volume, and therefore emphasizing certain aspects of the training stimuli, to fit the needs of the athlete’s physical profile.

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WITHIN-SESSION PROGRAMMING

When training multiple physical qualities within a workout, it is important to perform exercises in an order that optimizes training adaptations and reduces the detrimental effects of neuromuscular fatigue. An effective training session will always start with a comprehensive warm-up routine, raising overall body temperature, warming up the muscles and joints, as well as “waking up” the nervous system so the athlete is ready for the work ahead. After that, we need a set of principles to guide how we will structure our training order.

principle of fatigability

Simply put, exercises that require higher neuromuscular output and physical readiness are more susceptible to performance detriments due to fatigue. These exercises are better performed at the beginning of a training session (after warm-ups) when the athlete is fresh and has all of their physical and mental resources. Max effort, max intent modalities like intensive plyometrics, high effort compound lifts and ballistics all fall under this category.

Contrastingly, exercises that require a lesser degree of neuromuscular output like accessory lifts, isolation lifts and stability training can be trained at the end of a session with little to no detrimental effects on training adaptations. If we use this principle to guide exercise order, this is what a typical concurrent power and strength training session might look like:

The same principle can be used if we were train both martial arts and S&C within the same day. Because of the importance of skills training, I would schedule it first. Pre-fatigue can be a tool to improve skill retention and transfer, but in most cases, only hampers skill acquisition and development by making it harder for combat athletes to participate in high quality, deliberate training.

PRIORITY

Prioritization is an exception to the principle of fatigability. An athlete should first perform exercises that are most important to their primary training goal (if they one that is clear-cut). Going back to our athlete is differing athletic profiles, a force-deficient athlete should focus on high-force producing exercises first thing in each training session in order to reap in the most training benefits. Likewise, a velocity-deficient athlete should perform high-velocity exercises before slower movements (the outcome is in line with the principle of fatigability but for different reasons).

Post-activation potentiation and contrast training

Post-activation-potentiation (PAP) is a phenomenon where rate of force development (RFD)/power is increased due to previous near-maximum neuromuscular excitations. This is another exception to the principles of priority and fatigability, whereby the athlete will deliberately perform heavy compound lifts first even if RFD/power is the primary goal.

I’ve written an article about this topic of within-session planning, covering these principles more in-depth. If you’d like to learn more, read “Exercise Order - Principles For Sequencing A Training Session”.

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WRAPPING IT UP

Whenever I create an S&C program for combat sport athletes, I’m always considering all 4 layers of programming. Some of the specific methods I use like type of training-split or the type of volume/intensity undulating I use will change based on the athlete I’m working with, however, most of the governing philosophies (on the macrocyclic level - see Part 1) stay more or less the same.

It’s important for S&C coaches to adapt to information given in front of us, not be limited by scientific dogma, but at the same time, be willing to change and improve our philosophies over time. Since combat sports is a growing industry, so is S&C for combat sports. We must navigate through performance training with nuance.

The learning doesn’t stop there. Here are some combat sports S&C articles that will help you along the way.

FREE EBOOK CHAPTER DOWNLOAD

Chapter 7 of the eBook, “The Sport-Specific Trap - Revisiting Dynamic Correspondence for Combat Sports” talks about key concepts to consider when selecting exercises to enhance combat sports performance and some common mistakes coaches make.

Combat Sports Strength and Conditioning : Macrocycle & Mesocycle Planning [PART 1 of Programming Layers Series]

Given the complexities of combat sports performance, strength and conditioning programming must match the demands of the training environment by being adaptable and holistic. In order to achieve this, programming must consider all layers and timelines of training.

Programming and training periodization happens on 4 time scales (or layers) - Within session, on the microcyclic scale, mesocyclic scale and the macrocyclic scale. Each layer can be considered the lenses of which the S&C coach views training and physical preparation and must be planned accordingly.

In this article, we’ll discuss several strategies and philosophies I use when preparing combat sport athletes, which layers they can be utilized in and how a better understanding of programming can help us more effectively coach high performance combat sport athletes.

Some of the concepts I talk about will be familiar to those who have read my eBook “The Strength & Conditioning Handbook for Combat Sports”, while others maybe new to some of you.

This programming article series will be split into 2 parts.

In part 1 (this article), we will start with a low resolution view of training, in other words, the bigger picture. We will cover big concepts that guide our decisions when it comes to long-term athletic development and month to month training.

In part 2, we will work our way down to the specifics like week to week and day to day programming (higher resolution view).

READ PART 2 ON MICROCYCLE AND WITHIN-SESSION PLANNING PROGRAMMING HERE

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the MAcrocyclic layer

In training periodization, the macrocycle is the largest division of training periods, usually several months in length or even a years. When planning on the macrocyclic layer in combat sports, we are concerned with the long-term development of athletes. What the overall career trajectory looks like (considering factors like training and competition age) as well as overall athletic development/progression from fight to fight.

Below are some philosophies and frameworks I use to govern development on the macrocyclic level.

LTAD Model

The long-term athletic development model (LTAD) model is a framework created by Dr. Istvan Balyi to guide the participation, training and competitive aspects of sports and physical activity throughout different stages of development for any athlete.

No matter what stage an athlete comes into the sport, a base must be built for performance potential to flourish in the future. Whether your athletes’ goal is to compete in boxing, wrestling or Judo in the Olympics, or turn to a career in prize fighting for international organizations such as the UFC or One Championship, a coach must see S&C as a long-term investment. Coaches that partake in short-term thinking - disregarding joint health, brain health and overall athletic longevity do nothing but limit the potential of an athlete.

Skill Practice Rules All

The skill practice rules all paradigm acknowledges that skill is the most important aspect of combat sports, rather than physical ability. S&C coaches new to the combat sports world are hesitant on adopting this philosophy (the ones who do fail to manifest this in their programming) as many of them view high performance training through a purely physical and bioenergetic point of view - thinking that maximum strength, power and great endurance (as objectified through lab testing numbers) is what ultimately influences the outcome of a fight.

However, by undervaluing sport-specific skills such as pattern recognition, tactical strategies and fight experience, these coaches make mistakes in the training process that sacrifices skill development and expression for superficial strength and power gains.

Without getting into too much detail, I’ve used this skill practice rules all paradigm to influence my programming so that training stress is distributed more optimally throughout training camps and S&C plays a supplementary role, allowing skill expression to shine on the night of a fight.

If you’d like to learn exactly how I apply this into my S&C programs, I highly recommend you check out the eBook I mentioned earlier.

The Barbell Strategy

Taken from “The Strength & Conditioning Handbook for Combat Sports”

Originally a financial investment strategy, the barbell strategy adapted to S&C involves utilizing “low-risk” training methodologies as the main driver behind performance improvements; only prescribing special developmental exercises and “high-risk” exercises when the foundational bases have been thoroughly covered.

With the rise of social media and wild exercise variations promising transfer to the sport, it’s easy to get lost and major in the minors. Landmine punches and brutal conditioning circuits have a place in combat sports S&C but plays a very small role in driving meaningful improvements in fighters.

As a rule of thumb, 80-90% of time should be invested in “low-risk” exercises, and the rest 10-20% into more specialized training. However, don’t fall into the trap of thinking “low-risk” exercises are don’t drive any improvements in sports performance or that they are picked blindly, they should still be selected with the physical demands of the specific sport in mind. A comprehensive needs-analysis of the sport needs to be performed beforehand. Given the limited time I may have with a fighter (2-3 sessions a week), I must select exercises that have a favourable cost-to-benefit ratio.

Looking at the bigger picture, the barbell strategy keeps my programming and exercise selection process grounded by reminding me what improvements I can realistically make with combat fights as an S&C coach and what influence I have over the training process.

Agile Periodization

This is a term coined by S&C coach Mladen Jovanovic. As described by Mladen:

“Agile Periodization is a planning framework that relies on decision making in uncertainty, rather than ideology, physiological and biomechanical constructs, and industrial age mechanistic approach to planning” (Jovanovic, 2018).

Agile periodization represents a training philosophy that’s based on the uncertainty of human performance and one that permeates multiple layers of my programming and planning.

Rigid periodization models that we S&C coaches learn from textbooks and university classes unfortunately have little success given the unpredictability of the real-world and the volatility of combat sports training schedules, competition dates and career trajectories. Furthermore, mindlessly following scientific dogma and abstractions give us a false sense of predictability and stability in the training/planning process.

While we still need to set objective long-term goals and have a vision of what success looks like for our high-performance athletes, the agile periodization framework encourages simultaneous bottoms-up planning: what does the next best step look like given the athletic and environmental constraints in front of us? Does the long term goal change with the new information we’re receiving about the athlete and their progress?

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The mesocyclic layer

Mesocyclic planning is concerned with how training variables change from month to month - most of these strategies have fancy names and are ones you normally hear when reading about training periodization.

The overarching goal with mesocyclic planning is to create a training program that bests develops the athletic qualities a combat athlete needs in order to excel at their sport. Whether these qualities should be trained simultaneously, sequentially or in a specific order is what makes one periodization model different than the other.

Let’s explore a few options.

Block Periodization

Commonly confused with programs that simply have “blocks” or “phases” of training, block periodization (BP) is a specific periodization strategy popularized by soviet coaching figures like Verkoshanksy, Bondarchuk and Issurin (article here on a review on different types of training periodization). BP consists of distinct blocks of training aggressively targeting certain physical qualities, such as maximum strength, or plyometric ability (and doing the bare minimum to attempt to maintain other qualities). The basis behind BP is that elite-level athletes who are reaching the functional limits of their physical performance require highly concentrated training loads in order to further increase performance. This becomes problematic when translating it to the world of combat sports training. Here’s why:

Imagine a 4-week block dedicated to increasing maximum strength where the majority of your weight room training volume comes from heavy lifts above >85% of 1RM. The lack of a high-velocity stimulus combined with the fatigue incurred throughout this block will unquestionably hinder an athlete’s ability to develop new skills on the mats or clock in high-quality sparring sessions.

The physical demands of combat sports are not extreme (compared to pure-strength or pure-endurance sports), what’s important is improving key qualities slowly over time while still maintaining physical and mental energy to excel in the practice room - where it counts.

It’s a good idea to separate training into distinct blocks/phases with clear goals, However, implementation of BP, characterized by aggressive investments into single traits and heavily reliance on cumulative and residual training effects, is best left for sports like cycling and powerlifting.

Triphasic Training

Triphasic training, popularized by Cal Dietz, also shares some elements of block periodization, where each block heavily emphasizes the eccentric, isometric and concentric (3 phases - triphasic) muscle actions sequentially to improve speed and power at the end of the block.

Typically, a general preparation phase (GPP) is done prior to jumping into a 6-week triphasic training phase consisting of 2 weeks of eccentric focus, 2 weeks of isometric focus and 2 weeks of concentric focus. This is all capped off with a high velocity peaking/realization block lasting several weeks (depends on the athlete/sport/schedule).

Much like block periodization, triphasic training requires adequate preparation time before a fight or competition and can run into the same problems that BP does, of sacrificing quality of skills training in order to further build physical abilities.

Some coaches have made this work, notably William Wayland of Powering Through Performance, who adapted the triphasic model to MMA athletes, compressing the model and by utilizing supramaximal loading. William breaks it down much better than me so I suggest reading up on it here: “Applying The Compressed Triphasic Model with MMA Fighters”.

Concurrent Method

Like the name suggests, this method involves developing multiple physical qualities concurrently, from month to month. The emphasis on each quality is not implemented as aggressively as it would be in BP or a triphasic set up, so it allows for more programming flexibility - changing intensities and volumes where the S&C coach sees fit (see agile periodization).

By training concurrently, the training stimulus is spread amongst all physical qualities (endurance, strength, plyometric ability, power-endurance, etc) - no physical trait is being neglected, therefore an athlete’s physical readiness remains relatively stable from month to month. A potential downside to this method is that if we’re spreading the training volume thin amongst different traits, we risk watering down the training process and end up not making any tangible process in each area.

Contrastingly, this coincides with the concept of minimal-viable program (MVP) brought up by Mladen Jovanovic, a concept that states that a program that covers all areas will, over time, tell us what changes need to be made based on strengths, weaknesses and any data that comes out of that. Each subsequent training phase will then be modified to suit the needs of the athlete.

These paradigms and philosophies that occur on the macro- and mesocyclic level govern the way we view physical preparation for combat sport athletes, also affecting the decisions we make downstream. In part 2, we will go over strategies we can apply on the microcyclic level and within any given S&C session. (Click here to read part 2).

FREE EBOOK CHAPTER DOWNLOAD

Chapter 7 of the eBook, “The Sport-Specific Trap - Revisiting Dynamic Correspondence for Combat Sports” talks about key concepts to consider when selecting exercises to enhance combat sports performance and some common mistakes coaches make.

Alternatives to Olympic Weightlifting For Power Development

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This is a guest post written by Vancouver-based personal trainer and S&C coach Jason Lau of Performance Purpose. Olympic weightlifting movements in the S&C environment is a controversial topic because some coaches are quite dogmatic about it’s use in power development. There are pros and cons to using them, depending on the context. Coach Jason lays out reasons to use alternatives and in what situations they would be best utilized.

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Olympic Weightlifting for S&C

Olympic Weightlifting is a sport in which athletes attempt to lift a maximum weight overhead using the two competition lifts: Snatch and Clean & Jerk. These competition lifts and their derivatives: hang snatch/clean, push press, snatch/clean pulls, power clean/snatch/jerk, can often be seen programmed outside of the sport, in an athlete’s strength and conditioning program.

Due to the identical triple extension movement pattern (extension of ankles, knees and hips), seen commonly in weightlifting and sports, an athlete training the weightlifting movements can greatly improve the transfer of power from feet through torso to hands, as well as athletic coordination. In that sense, weightlifting can serve as a specific preparatory exercise that matches the high force and high velocity seen in sport that traditional heavy lifting cannot satisfy.

To quote Cal Dietz – “In order for an athlete to become fast, they must train fast.”

Then Why Use Alternatives?

Despite the power development that the weightlifting movements provides for athletes, there are also risks that you will have to consider as well.

Aside from aggravated joints such as knees, shoulders and hips, the lifts requires a high technical demand to perform correctly and safely. Time is required to master the technical aspect of the lifts. Time that should not be carelessly managed when an athlete is training for an upcoming game or season. Another factor to consider is the amount of training experience the athlete has in the weight-room. Mobility and injury restrictions may also interfere with the athlete’s ability in performing the lifts. Lack of ankle and overhead mobility and stability are restrictions are common and should be addressed before progressively overloading as it may lead to injury down the road.

Power development is also specific. In the world of S&C, specificity is king as game/competition date draws close. Does the athlete have to move heavy external or light loads within the sport? This will determine what type of loading scheme and stimulus is required. For example, a football linebacker will lean towards higher intensity hang cleans including prioritisation of strength due to the demands of their sport. On the other hand, the intensities a volleyball athlete’s program would see lighter intensities as external load is not needed to the same degree within the sport.

By taking into consideration of the limitations listed previously, alternatives can be performed and taught with relative ease while mimicking the classic lifts in velocity and movement pattern. Through alternatives, we can achieve the same stimulus that weightlifting movements bring while still improving strength in high-velocities.

Alternative Exercises

Trap Bar Jumps – Trap Bar Jumps is one of the go-to replacements for weightlifting. A previous study done by Timothy J. Suchomel indicates that when utilizing lighter loads (<40% of 1RM), the jumps displayed higher force output compared to a hang power clean at the same load. The learning curve of this exercise is relatively low where the majority of athletes can perform without difficulty while staying true to the natural movement pattern of jumping. With the versatility of the trap bar jump, it can be performed with a counter-movement while loaded with bands or weights.

Squat Jumps – Squat Jumps is a great transition towards power as an athlete is transferring out of their strength focused block. Aside from a smooth transition, a squat jump replicates the second pull during a clean. This can be performed from a quarter squat depth or full squat depth, all dependent on the athlete’s goals. Considering this exercise utilizes the squat movement pattern, it is different from an athlete’s natural jumping form so it may not satisfy the need of specificity.

Medicine Ball Toss – The med ball toss is a great exercise to have within one’s arsenal. Ballistics are predominantly concentric in nature allowing the athlete to focus on the acceleration phase without having to catch or decelerate at the end. The ability to reap the benefits of fast twitch muscle fibre contractions without the negative effects of eccentric forces can benefit the athlete. Tosses can be expressed throughout multiple planes of motion as well, not only vertically, that is what makes this movement so versatile.

Prowler Push – The vast majority of alternatives are bilateral in nature, but with Prowler Pushes and drags, we can achieve unilateral power with little technical demand on the athlete. This allows the athlete to drive off the ground and transfer force through the torso and into the prowler with no eccentric forces. This movement is versatile and can serve as a special developmental exercise for athletes in frequent sprinting sports.

To weightlift or not to weightlift?

That is the question. My answer? It depends.

I encourage coaches to look at the bigger picture. Does the athlete have enough time to learn the technicalities of the lifts? Are the athlete’s movement patterns proficient enough? Does the athlete have enough weight-room experience? Are there any severe mobility or stability issues that the athlete has to address beforehand? Are the alternatives sufficient for the time being? There is more than one route to achieve ideal athletic qualities. The factors that set apart good and bad S&C programs from each others are the risk to reward ratio, efficiency and specificity.

References

Suchomel, T. J., & Sole, C. J. (2017, September 1). Power-Time Curve Comparison between Weightlifting Derivatives. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5592293/

Shattock, K. (2018, February). The Use of Olympic Lifts and Their Derivatives to Enhance Athletic / Sporting Performance: A Mental Model. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322901416_The_Use_of_Olympic_Lifts_and_Their_Derivatives_to_Enhance_Athletic_Sporting_Performance_A_Mental_Model

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

JASON LAU is a Strength & Conditioning / Physical Preparation coach and owner of PERFORMANCE PURPOSE based out of Richmond, BC. His passions include coaching and refining badminton, volleyball and hockey athletes, beginner to provincial level powerlifters, return-to-play rehab and general population clientele of all ages.

He aims to offer a systematic and evidence based approach to off-season and in-season training, translating the athlete’s weight room progress towards their specialized sport. His goal is to drive improvement and progress of each individual within the field of athletic performance.

Website: https://performancepurpose.ca/
Instagram: @performancepurpose

FREE EBOOK CHAPTER DOWNLOAD

Chapter 7 of the eBook, “The Sport-Specific Trap - Revisiting Dynamic Correspondence for Combat Sports” talks about key concepts to consider when selecting exercises to enhance combat sports performance and some common mistakes coaches make.

Exercise Order - Principles For Sequencing A Training Session

Given that you are able to select a handful of exercises that have a good chance of influencing strength & conditioning performance measures in athletes, you must be able to sequence each training session with the exercises in the “correct” order. 

I say the word “correct” very cautiously as there are no absolute truths or right or wrong in the complex, unpredictable world of human performance. To navigate through the unpredictable nature of training, it pays off greatly to have a set of principles to prescribe and coach by, while still leaving room for flexibility when new information or new prioritizations arise.

Principles for sequencing a training session

The main goal of exercise sequencing when training athletic qualities concurrently (plyometric ability, rate of force development, maximum force output, muscular endurance, etc ) is to optimize the training adaptations from each single modality and reduce the detrimental effects of neuromuscular fatigue.

Optimizing exercise order is driven by two interrelated principles: fatigability and priority. 

Fatigability

The principle of fatigability accounts for each exercise modality’s sensitivity to neuromuscular fatigue. Exercises that require high nervous system output and higher physiological and psychological readiness are more susceptible to performance detriments due to fatigue.

One explanation for this lie in the physiological characteristics of our muscle fibers. Fast-twitch, type 2 muscle fibers possess higher contractile speeds and a higher potential to produce contractile force. For this reason, they are favored during exercises that demand high-velocities and high-force outputs. Type 1 muscle fibers in contrast, are more resistant to fatigue due to their higher oxidative properties but as a consequence, have lower force-producing capabilities.

The larger velocity and force demands, the shorter they can be sustained for.

Following the principle of fatigability, exercises modalities like plyometrics, ballistic and maximum strength should then be performed first if they are to be trained concurrently within a training session. 

Accessory exercises that are single-joint in nature, aimed at smaller muscles groups can be placed in the latter half of a training session. Their relatively low technical and neuromuscular demands means their effectiveness will not be diminished to the same degree with the onset of fatigue.

Priority

The principle of priority is highly correlated to the principle of fatigue, and states that an athlete should be performing the exercises that are most important to their primary training goal, at a time when they have the most resources to do so. From an energetic and fatigue standpoint, this usually means the beginning of a training session when the athletes are at their highest point of psychological and physiological readiness (after a proper warm-up of course).

Not including the athletes at the ends of the endurance-strength spectrum (like endurance cyclists and powerlifters) the primary goal of many athletes is to develop higher rate of force development (RFD) / power and transfer this improved athleticism to sport-specific skills. Strength training is a secondary goal but must also be considered as it is crucial for second order effects such as injury risk reduction, slower-velocity force production and carryover to RFD training.

If your primary goal however, is to develop maximum strength, heavy compound lifts should come before high-velocity training. This sequencing does not follow the principle of fatigability, but satisfies the principle of prioritization. 

the contrast training exception

Contrast training offers an exception to the principles of fatigability and priority, where heavy compound lifts are deliberately performed first to elicit a post-activation-potentiation (PAP) effect, even if RFD/power is the primary goal.

PAP is a physiological/neurological phenomenon where RDF/power is increased due to previous near-maximal muscle contractions. You’ve probably seen protocols utilized by strength & conditioning coaches such as heavy back squats paired with sprinting and jumping, or heavy presses paired with ballistic medicine ball throws and slams.

While the most common form of potentiating modality is maximum strength (85-100% of 1RM or <0.5m/s bar speed if you’re using VBT), I, along with other coaches I’ve communicated with, have had success using strength-speed exercises as a potentiating modality. Exercises like weighted trapbar jumps or Olympic weightlifting variations, loaded to achieve velocities around 0.75 - 1.0m/s.

Isolating Before Integrating in Rehabilitation & Return-To-Play settings

In the context of rehabilitation, priority is given to exercises that are aimed towards rebuilding the capacity of the injured muscle, joint, tendons and/or ligaments. In my return-to-play protocols for my athletes, I will place single-joint, stability and balance-based exercises in the beginning of the training session before integrating them back into strength and plyometric exercise regressions.

Since our main goal is rebuilding the athletes’ capacities, velocities and force-outputs are not expected to be high, therefore there will be little detrimental effects to placing those exercises last.

Anecdotally, my athlete’s have reported feeling more confident in performing strength and plyometric exercises after an extended warm up and emphasis on their injured area.

Wrapping it up

Exercise sequencing should be individualized on an athlete-by-athlete basis using the principles of fatigability and priority, while taking into account special circumstances like performing advanced training protocols or managing injured athletes. While some can argue exercise selection has a larger impact influencing performance outcomes and that exercise order is of less importance, using principles for exercise sequencing bring a consistent and strategic approach to the design and implementation of a training session that cannot be overlooked by high performance athletes and coaches.

FREE EBOOK CHAPTER DOWNLOAD

Chapter 7 of the eBook, “The Sport-Specific Trap - Revisiting Dynamic Correspondence for Combat Sports” talks about key concepts to consider when selecting exercises to enhance combat sports performance and some common mistakes coaches make.

[Published on SimpliFaster.com] Individualizing and Optimizing Performance Training For Basketball

In the world of performance training, a needs analysis of the sport is mandatory—but this only represents the first step to a fully optimized training program. A coach must also look at the playing style of the individual athlete and the demands the athlete puts on their body to be successful on the court. Not all athletes of the same position will have the same playing style, and understanding this is important for designing and coaching a training program to optimize performance and injury mitigation.

This article features a case study on Darryl Wong to show the inner workings of a performance training program for a basketball athlete. 

READ MORE @ SIMPLIFASTER [CLICK HERE FOR THE ARTICLE LINK]

[Published on SimpliFaster.com] Plyometric Push-Ups and Progressions for Power Development

Push-ups are one of the most commonly used exercises among fitness buffs and elite-level athletes. As a closed-chained exercise that targets the chest and upper body musculature, push-ups are highly effective for improving upper body pushing strength and endurance, and can be done with no equipment. There are plenty of regressions, progressions, and variations to pick from, making push-ups useful for athletes of all types. From bodyweight push-ups to loaded isometric push-ups, there are also various ways to load and challenge the movement...

[Read More @ SimpliFaster.com - Click Here For The Link]

Hypertrophy vs. Strength Periodization: Thoughts on Linear vs. DUP Programming

Recently, there's been some discussion about the differences in periodization for hypertrophy/muscle gain vs. strength and I just wanted to clear the air and give my take on it.

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"Strength and hypertrophy adaptations between low- versus high-load resistance training: A systematic review and meta-analysis"

(https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319263841_Strength_and_hypertrophy_adaptations_between_low-_versus_high-load_resistance_training_A_systematic_review_and_meta-analysis)

Conclusions: Both low- and high-load training are beneficial for hypertrophy but high-load training is better for strength adaptations.

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"Effects of linear and daily undulating periodized resistance training programs on measures of muscle hypertrophy: a systematic review and meta-analysis"

(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5571788/)

Conclusion: Linear- and & DUP are both similar for muscle hypertrophy.

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These 2 papers compliment each other more than people think.

Here's why:

HYPERTROPHY is an anatomical adaptation whereby your muscles grow in size as a result of mechanical tension, metabolic stress and muscle damage; each having different contributions to the muscle building process. ("The Mechanisms of Muscle Hypertrophy and Their Application to Resistance Training" by Brad Schoenfeld)

STRENGTH is both an anatomical adaptation AND skill, which takes into account the practice of specific motor patterns. When it comes to the "performance" aspect, strength is expressed through lifting a heavy load, so by the way specificity, high load training obviously transfers over better to strength performance.

Whenever you plan or organize training principles (periodization), you first look at how the body behaves to certain stressors (exercise physiology). If rep range is fairly irrelevant in terms of building muscle, it's pretty clear that a DUP set up where you vary intensities/weight on the bar from day to day would offer the same benefits, if not more, than a linear set up where you commit to a certain rep range/intensity for multiple weeks at a time.

From here, it is safe to say:

1. Low and high-load training works for hypertrophy given the same effort - therefore DUP-based training is a valid strategy for hypertrophy.
   
   

2. Strength is a skill, which is built on high-load training, and expressed through a withdrawal of stress; which is termed a taper/peak (performance = fitness - fatigue).
   
   

3. Periodization for hypertrophy comes primarily in the form of volume progression and effort management. Pretty simple.
   
   

4. Periodization for strength however, volume, intensity, frequency, and fatigue all must be managed more closely in order to address the aspect of skill and motor learning development, as well as maximum strength specificity and expression

Without getting into TOO much detail. Let's keep it at that for now.

Cheers!

Periodization of Skill Acquisition & Performance

ONE Fighting Championship’s Elite Muay Thai Fighters: Rodtang (Left) and Jonathan Haggerty (Right)

Whether it be closed-skill sports like powerlifting and triathlon, or open-skilled sports like team sports and mixed martial arts (MMA), both physical attributes and technical proficiency in the sport-specific movements play a role in an athlete's success. Much of periodization has been focused around physical training, and how micro, meso, and macrocycles can be set up to aid in the improvement of strength, power and endurance. The periodization of skill acquisition and practice however, has yet to be examined to the same degree.

From my personal work on how to facilitate better technical improvements through periodization in powerlifting, to personal interests in MMA plus the back and forth debates on whether Conor McGregor's mixed martial arts skills will transfer over to the boxing ring; skill acquisition and performance is a big interest of mine.

Most of this series will be based on one of my recent readings: "Development of a Skill Acquisition Periodisation Framework for High-Performance Sport" by Damien Farrow and Sam Robertson (2016). For a more in-depth, fuller understanding, I highly suggest you read the article first.

In part 1 (this article), I will outline the main points made by Farrow & Robertson (2016) plus any of my own commentary and insight as it pertains to periodization. In part 2, I will directly quote the review article and expand on the points as it pertains to the sport of MMA and the implications it has on how MMA-specific skills are acquired, developed and expressed.

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what is periodization?

There is a common misconception about periodization, where people believe periodization consist of complex progressions and loading schemes used only by advanced coaches. While these complex protocols may be used, periodization in the bigger scheme of things, is simply the division of training periods and the principle of cyclical training where programming variables are manipulated. Variables like intensity, volume, frequency, rest and exercise selection among others are strategically controlled and varied in order to reduce the risk of injury and maximize sport performance for individual athletes or sports teams.

Periodization takes into consideration the level, training age and genetic predispositions of an athlete in order to avoid overtraining and allow them to peak for one or several competitions. In a periodized training plan, certain time-frames exists for the manipulation of programming variables, these time frames are termed macrocycle, mesocycle and microcycle.

A macrocycle is considered the longest duration of the training cycle, usually several months in length or even a few years. For example, a quadrennial macrocycle describes a 4-year long program used to prepare an athlete or sport team for the Olympic games. A macrocycle is comprised of several mesocycles, which are a few months in length and can be defined as a prepatory, competition or transitional phase. Lastly, mesocycles are further divided into microcycleswhich deals with training on the weekly-basis.

Macrocycle (months to years)

Mesocycles (weeks to months)

Microcycles (training on the week to week basis)

Periodization serves as both a system where training is based on, and a tool to adapt future training protocols given the emerging information about the athlete or environment.

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the process of skill acquisition and practice

In the review article by Farrow & Robertson (2016), the two researchers examine skill through a holistic view, considering them both "perceptual-cognitive and technical motor skill collectively given the reciprocal nature of the relationship between perception and action". They state that the current way of analyzing skills practice is very outcome-based, rather than based on the understanding of the principles and processes of which instruction, learning and practice is based on. 

While there has been some research on skill periodization in the setting of rehabilitation, there has not been enough literature on skills periodization in relation to high-performance sports and how different practice methodologies can be altered throughout a program to facilitate better learning, retention and transfer. Should the number of golf swings in practice increase closer to a golf tournament? Should a quarterback practice his passes with more players or less players as they get closer to the in-season? Should MMA athletes increase their frequency of sparring as they inch closer to the fight? These are all questions Farrow & Robertson (2016) want coaches and trainers asking, and ultimately, find a (or multiple) solution(s) to.

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"SPORT" Framework

The main framework proposed to examine skills periodization is the "SPORT" framework/model. "SPORT" refers to the variables of [S]pecificity, [P]rogression, [O]verload, [R]eversability and [T]edium.

Right away we can draw parallels to the physical training realm, where specificity may refer to how specific a selected exercise is to the sports movement (perhaps using Bondarchuk's exercise classification system) and where overload might refer to the progression in volume load or intensity as a % of 1RM over the span of a training cycle.

Now, let's discuss each variable in the "SPORT" framework proposed to view skill training and periodization.

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Specificity

In skill training, specificity refers to how similar the movements and cognitive-behavioral demands of the skill being practiced are, compared to the skill being displayed and performed in competition. Farrow & Robertson (2016) use the term "representative learning design" or "representativeness" synonymously with specificity to refer to the "extent to which the practice prescribed reflects the behavioral demands of the task". Citing other literature, they also bring up the idea that training consists of several constraints that determine the degree of specificity for each movement or skill.

These constraints can be categorized into the following:

• Individual

• Environmental

• Task

Individual constraints refer to the physical attributes of an athlete such as strength, power and endurance. Environmental constraints refer to the temperature, atmosphere, and weather conditions of practice and competition, while task constraints include "the type of skill being performed, rules of the game and/or the equipment used". These constraints can then be manipulated to alter the course of how skills are acquired and practiced.

Much like in physical training where highly-specific training will have their merits, including some sort of variation can help widen the base on where specific-skills are built - not every practice session has to have the same environmental conditions or the same amount of players as in competition. For example, practicing in a 2 player vs. 2 player situation or a 3v2 game may improve some measures of skills that can then be successfully transferred over to 5v5 game play. Farrow & Robertson (2016) acknowledge that there is yet to be a definitive answer on how effective these practices are, but that understanding constraints give coaches and trainers a tool by which they can better evaluate practice and prescribe skill training based on degree of specificity.

Throughout the review article, the researchers use the example of a footballer performing passes in training. Below is the example of a chart that breaks down each constraint that might be present in the practice session and its relation to competition.  

"Three examples of skill constraints are provided; quantifying the prevalence of each allows for direct comparison of training with competition conditions. The difference between the two sets of conditions represents the level of training specificity." via Farrow & Robertson (2016).

This sort of systematic, quantitative breakdown of skill practice and training can be used in conjunction with a more qualitative coaches' eye to better understand skill practice specificity.

Relating to the topic specificity, I would like to bring up the utilization of ladder drills for foot speed and agility. Ladder drills have been a popular training modality for football teams, soccer teams and many other team sports, and for that exact reason, has also been on the receiving end of criticism that it does not transfer over to in-game agility and is a waste of time. In this case, the proponents of the ladder drill fail not to match the physical movements to competition settings, but the constraints of the skill themselves. In a closed environment, ladder drills do not account for task constraints such as changing direction to pass a ball vs. to receive a ball, the number of teammates to pass to, and ultimately, being reactionary to the presence of a skillful defender.

From ScienceForSport.com

All skills are composed of physical, and psycho-environmental (is that even a word?) factors. The athlete must possess the physical capacities to carry out the movement with intensity and sustainability, and they must do so under various conditions, environments and against different opponents. This has implications for how we approach closed-skill sports where the environmental and task constraints are static, compared to open-skilled sports that are reactive in nature. Can ladder drills serve as a warm up? Probably. Will ladder drills significantly improve a player's in-game agility? Probably not.

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Progression

In physical training, progression usually refers to the increase in training stress to induce positive adaptation in the human body, whether it be increased endurance training mileage, increased resistance training intensity or an increased ability to tolerate higher training loads. In skill training, progression can refer to the total volume or repetitions of a particular skill being practiced, increases in mental and cognitive exertion or a higher skill specificity in practice.

The review article also highlights the concept of deliberate practice, which is defined as a "learner's capacity to develop mechanisms as a consequence of extensive training that expand their processing capacities and in turn their development". An athlete or practitioner that performs deliberate practice is thought to "seek out training situations in which a set goal exceeds their current level of performance", in other words, someone who is constantly looking to improve - which requires conscious effort (Farrow & Robertson ,2016). This all gives way to another concept termed challenge point framework which refers to how challenging a skill is in comparison to the current skill level of an athlete.

Understanding how complex and how much technicality a skill is on the hypothetical beginner/novice <--> master/expert spectrum allows coaches and trainers to more accurately prescribe drills and practices. Simply speaking, a skill being practiced shouldn't be so easy that it doesn't challenge the athlete enough for them to improve, but at the same time, shouldn't be so difficult that the athlete can't grasp or progress adequately.  

Using the football pass example again, Farrow & Robertson (2016) illustrate an example of a quantifiable progression a footballer can use to improve their passing ability on the mesocyclical level (week to week).

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overload

Consisting of one half of the principle of progressive overload, overload is measured by decreases or increases in internal training load (rate of perceived exertion (RPE), heart rate response) and external training load (distance covered, poundages lifted). Overload can also be thought of as training above baseline to induce adaptations that allow athletes to progress in their performance - the two concepts are intertwined and often synonymous. When it comes to skill training, Farrow & Robertson (2016) refer to the the concept of load as the cognitive effort in demand, or the volume of skills and repetition practiced like discussed in the previous section. Specifically, cognitive effort is defined as "the mental work involved in making decisions that underscore movement". Time stress, pressure from the opposing players and environment, and precise decision making all play a role in how much cognitive effort is demanded of an athlete during any given practice.

When it comes to cognitive effort, Farrow & Robertson (2016) highlight the effect of contextual interference, which shows that high cognitive effort demanding practice results in a decrease in practice performance but improves the retention of the practice skill, and ultimately the transfer to competition. The opposite is also true where practice that doesn't require a sufficient amount of cognitive effort improves practice performance (most likely due to lower complexity or a poorly prescribed practice based on the challenge point framework) but does not provide retention and transfer effects. In order to better influence skill retention and transfer, the amount of cognitive effort (load) must be altered to benefit the athlete. Specifically, the researchers point to the blocked vs. mixed approach. Here is an example:

Blocked Approach

• 10 field goals up close

• 10 field goals from a moderate distance

• 10 field goals far away

Mixed Approach

• 2 field goals up close

• 7 field goals from a moderate distance

• 4 field goals up close again

• 1 field goal far away

• etc...

The mixed approach has shown to be more beneficial for skill retention and transfer to competition. The idea is to introduce some sort of randomness (or whatever strategy the coach sees fit) and variation to keep cognitive efforts high and to break up monotonous repetitions. Just as an athlete acclimatizes to the conditions/environment, change it. This leads to "inconsistent practice performance but superior learning of the skill" as Farrow & Robertson (2016) state. My hypothesis is that when the athletes aren't allowed to become too comfortable with the conditions and constraints of the practice, they're forced to recall certain motor patterns, shot timing, judgement of distance, etc... more frequently, leading to more adaptability and better retention. Overloading skill practice then, might mean increasing the cognitive effort demands of a practice and/or through a more difficult or random distribution of skill practice as the training cycle progresses.

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Reversibility

Reversibility refers to the decrease in skill performance when practice has been reduced in frequency or withdrawn completely - very similar to the idea of residual effects of physical detraining. The concept of reversibility is important as it informs coaches and trainers which skills may or may not be retained heading into a competition or from one training session into the next. Skill reversibility can be tested using two methods - the retention test and the transfer test.

The Retention Test involves performing the skill after a period of no practice and determines the degree to which the particular skill is loss - which could be reaction time based or biomechnically based.

The Transfer Test is simply a direct measurement of whether the skill practiced has improved and successfully transferred over to real-life competition. 

Factors that affect the results of these tests include the method of tapering, and how fast the practice sessions were withdrawn before the date of testing.

While it wasn't touched on in great detail, Farrow & Robertson (2016) do take the time to talk about memory consolidation and how important sleep and recovery would be for retaining the skills practiced during training.

To add onto this section, I wonder if reversibility in skill training behaves like residual effects in the physical training world. I would guess that skills that have been developed for a longer period of time (let's say for 10 years) decay more slowly than skills that have been developed recently (1-2 years for example) as those skills might be more susceptible to the reversibility effect. Many anecdotes point towards this since many highly skilled practitioners from various types of sports are able to retain their skills well-beyond old age and/or cessation of training. I have not looked into the research in this area though.

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Tedium

Lastly, tedium refers to the state of "being bored due to monotony" as Farrow & Robertson (2016) state. Also related to specificity, the concept of tedium gives way to perhaps the underlying question that periodization is based off of - how much variation is needed?

As the expert in periodization and training management John Kiely says, "if [training variation] and adaptive energy is too widely distributed, gains may be excessively diluted... but if repetitive application of a unidimensional training stress [is applied], the athlete will be exposed to the negative effects of unremitting monotony". Not only is a lack of variation correlated with an increased incidence of overtraining syndromes and poor physical performance, it can also affect the psychological profile of an athlete.

A bored athlete is an unmotivated athlete - an unmotivated athlete is less likely to seek deliberate, challenging practice and therefore will not improve.

In addition to having a strategically written training plan that takes into account all the variables above such as specificity, training constraints and progressive overload, Farrow & Robertson (2016) note that the athlete should be provided some sort of control over their practice sessions as this has shown to enhance skill acquisition. Coaches should work with athletes, not on them - cause after all, coaching is both a science and an art. The value of interpersonal communication, coach-athlete chemistry, and enjoyment should be not be overlooked in the training process.

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Putting it together - possible periodization techniques

• Use a blocked approach (low cognitive effort) early on in the season to drill a high amount of reps, progress to a mixed approach to improve retention and transfer
  

• Avoid programming a hard effort physical training workout and a skill training session that demands high cognitive effort on the same day (prolonged periods of high cognitive effort can lead to a decrease in skill practice performance)
  

• Further away from competition - lower the frequency of highly representative skills and include a larger variety (less constraints matching the demands of competition)
  

• Closer to a competition - increase the frequency of highly-specific skills and match the constraints and cognitive-behavioral demands of the sport
  

• Skills that are less susceptible to reversibility should be practiced less often to make time to address weaknesses or other skills that need to be improved on
  

• Some possible deload techniques : decrease skill complexity to reduce cognitive effort, decrease frequency of skill practice, decrease total weekly volume of skill practice,
  

• Allow athletes to dictate skill training session (to a degree) further away from competition. Keep it strict closer to competition.

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Chapter 7 of the eBook, “The Sport-Specific Trap - Revisiting Dynamic Correspondence for Combat Sports” talks about key concepts to consider when selecting exercises to enhance combat sports performance and some common mistakes coaches make.

Tapering & Peaking: How To Design A Taper and Peak For Sports Performance [Part 2 of Peaking Series]

Read Part 1 Here

In order to see results and reap in the adaptations from exercise and training, an athlete or trainee must push their bodies past baseline, past their current limits. To maximize these gains, an athlete must also properly recover from training sessions so they can continue to train in a safe and efficient manner. Aside from adequate sleep, proper nutrition and nutrient intakes, one way athletes recover is by implementing periods of restoration, often called a deload. A deload is when the training stress is reduced in order for the athlete to realize their adaptations and to give their mind and body a well-deserved rest. A similar protocol, called a taper or peak, is when training stressed is acutely withdrawn to improve an athlete's performance measures beyond baseline, usually to prepare for an important sporting event or competition.

Part 2 will cover the details of a proper taper/peaking protocol. The manipulation of training variables will be discussed as well as the performance improvements that are expected from a taper.

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Tapering & Peaking

Tapering and peaking for a competition revolves around the concepts of functional-overreaching and supercompensation. From part 1, we learned that acute fatigue from training can accumulate over weeks and months to cause chronic fatigue. Chronic fatigue can be be categorized into non-functional (develops into overtraining syndrome) and functional.

Functional-overreaching, despite it's negative effects on performance can result in what's known as supercompensation. Supercompensation, a slight enhancement of performance (>100%), is achieved through proper recovery after a subsequent period of hard training, termed planned overreaching, taper, or peaking. For the sake of this article, I'll be using the terms taper and peak synonymously.

Taken off Wikipedia.

A taper usually involves a structured reduction in training load to remove acute and fatigue in order to potentiate increases in physiological and psychological performance. I touched on this subject in my periodization series, where I discussed the fitness-fatigue model of performance, which suggests that fitness and fatigue are inversely related. When we introduce a training stress, fitness adaptations and the accumulation of fatigue occur simultaneously and it is not until the training stressor is reduced, where we see an improvement in performance. The fitness-fatigue model is used in conjunction with Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome and the Stimulus-Fatigue-Recovery-Adaptation model to explain training. I highly recommend you read my periodization series to better understand the following sections.

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Who Should Taper? and Why?

The concept of tapering was created in order for athletes to produce their best performance on a given competition date. This means the taper or peak will be the most suitable for athletes involved in sports that are climatic in nature. Think of a huge MMA fight or the Olympic 100m sprint. Events that boil down to one time and date where the athlete needs to perform at their absolute best. These athletes will utilize the most aggressive tapering methods, compared to team sports or sports that consist of longer in-seasons where athletes are required to maintain a relatively high performance throughout weeks or months.

Non-climatic sports like tennis, basketball, and many team sports that have a 4-5 month game season will not depend on tapering/peaking methods until the most important games and matches - tournaments, playoffs and championships.

However, both type of sports use the same principle of training residuals to guide their tapering methods. 

Taken from Nick Winkleman

Training residuals refer to the rate of detraining for each physical attribute, such as maximal strength, maximal power, endurance, etc. This is an important concept to understand as there must be a fine balance between the how much a stressor should be withdrawn (and for how long) and what qualities must be at peak condition come competition day.

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manipulating Training variables

Since frequency, intensity and volume mediate training load and training stress, manipulation of any these variables can cause a reduction in training load, the main goal of a taper. However, decreases in the wrong variable can hinder performance.

Frequency

In a study by Mjukia et al (2012), elite middle-distance runners saw improvements in their performance when their frequency of training was maintained during a taper, compared to a 30% reduction in training frequency which resulted in no change in performance. The possible benefits of maintaining frequency can be credited to the fact that higher frequency training allows for a more strategic distribution of volume load, and creates an environment where technical skill can be practiced more frequently leading up to a competition. Due to the limitations and lack of studies on the manipulation of frequency for tapering, these recommendations seem to hold true for both aerobic and anaerobic sports. Example: take an Olympic Weightlifter who snatches and clean & jerks 4 times a week. It would not make sense to reduce competition lift frequency as the competition nears as maintaining 4 times a week practice is crucial for skill practice and visualization.

Intensity

When it comes to intensity, a reduction during a taper has shown to lead to decreases in both aerobic and anaerobic performance measures. In several studies, intensity reductions ranging from 30 to 60% decreased aerobic and anaerobic performance by 20 to 30% as well as decrements in VO2max values. One basic explanation for this is that reducing intensity violates the rule of specificity in periodized training. Movement patterns and intensities should closely mimic the demands of competition as an athlete gets closer to competition. Reducing the weight on the bar for a powerlifter or straying too far away from race-pace for a runner does not adequately prepare them for competition. There may be situations where an intensity reduction is required (perhaps a mis-timed overreaching phase, or the athlete is too fatigue and sore to perform at the given intensity with quality movement), in these cases, keep intensity reductions on the low end (<30%).

In contrast, a maintenance or small increase in training intensity has been shown to be beneficial for performance. In power athletes, leg press 1RM, squat jump as well as track and field performance all increased when intensity of training was maintained up to the testing day or performance date. Elite rugby players also showed similar improvements in their jumping performance and their ability to generate force when intensity was slightly increased during a taper. 

Since the literature recommends that frequency and intensity be maintained or slightly increased during a taper, the most practical solution then is to reduce training load is to reduce training volume.
 

Volume

In endurance training, reducing volume can be achieved by reducing the total time spent in the target heart rate or power output zone, or reducing the total distance covered during training. Reducing the time-in-zone volume is more accurate compared to reducing total distance as it considers the intensity of which training is carried out.

In resistance training, reducing volume during a taper is achieved via reducing the number of reps or sets performed at any given intensity. Murach & Bagley (2015) state that for both endurance and power sports, reductions in training volumes ranging from 30% to 70% over the span of 2 or 3 weeks improves sport performance.

I know what you're thinking... "30% to 70%!? that's a huge range, how is that practical?"
 

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So... How much & how fast?

The magnitude and duration of the volume reduction is dependent on several factors:

• The experience of the athlete (recreational vs. sub-elite vs. elite)

• Length of the their training cycle

• Initial training volume load

• Previous experiences with tapering and peaking

• Introduction of new recovery modalities during the taper or peak

It's suggested that if several weeks of moderate training is performed, a more conservative reduction in volume (30-50%) over the span of 7 to 10 days should be carried out. For hard training cycles that last several months, anywhere from 60-90% reductions in volume should be carried out over 10-28 days. The higher degree of accumulated fatigue, the larger reduction of training volume is needed to see performance gains at the end of the taper. This is where the readiness monitor plays a role in conjunction with monitoring training loads and intensity. Performance is just as much how the athlete feels the week of the competition, as it is how they're supposed to feel on paper.

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Types of tapers

Taking into account the magnitude and duration of the taper, there are 3 tapering formats that have been reviewed in the literature.

Step taper is a complete and immediate decrease in training volume on the first day of the taper and is maintained throughout the whole duration.

Linear taper is defined as a progressive decrease in volume over the span of the taper duration, often seen in fixed increments. For example, decreasing volume by 5% or 10% every training session until the planned % reduction is reached.

Exponential taper involves reducing volume in a nonlinear fashion and can be defined as having a fast or slow decay rate. A fast decay rate for example, may mean reducing training volume by half every 2 days, while a slow decay rate may mean reducing training volume by half every 5 days. The literature proposes that for tapers that are short in duration, volume decreases should come by the way of step tapering or fast decay times, while athletes and coaches that possess more time to taper should experiment with more progressive reductions in volume with slow to moderate decay times.

Taken from Runsmartonline.com

Taken from Fellrnr.com

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Tapering Benefits

How much of an improvement in performance can we expect from tapering volume and/or other training variables?

Obviously, this depends on the sport and the physical attributes related to the sporting event.

Reductions in training volume show benefits across the board for many different athletic events and populations. Below is a graph taken from Murach & Bagley (2015), outlining the performance benefits as it pertains to swimming, biking, running, rowing and throwing events.

Indirect Performance Measures

Tapering results in increased recovery and reduced stress, which can also facilitate more positive mood states and reducing performance anxiety, rate of perceived exertion and increased vigor and confidence. For all athletes, improvements in hormonal, psychological and sleep-related factors also contribute to increasing performance. 

Specifically for endurance and mixed-type athletes, glycogen storage plays a big role in performance. With a taper and reduction in training volume, liver and muscle glycogen stores are able to replenish to their maximum levels with an accompanying decrease in muscular fatigue. Contrastingly, glycolytic and aerobic enzymes seem to be less affected by tapering. Increases in muscular power has also been seen in endurance athletes. During a taper, the type II muscle fibers are able to recovery and hypertrophy at a faster rate than type I fibers, and has thought to be the main contributor of muscular power increases.

For strength and power athletes, the performance increases can be attributed to a decrease in muscular fatigue. When volume is decreased, markers of muscle damage also progressively decrease, resulting in lower instances of muscle soreness. 

For mixed athletes, the specific mechanisms are unclear and depend on the nature of the sport, but the taper benefits most likely come from a mixture of both endurance and power-based qualities. An analysis of the sport, and the athlete's position should be taken into account when planning a taper.
 

Direct Performance Increases

Endurance athletes can expect a 1-9% increase in VO2max, up to an 8% increase in running economy and up to a 15% increase in red blood cell count. Regardless of the distance of the event, it is reasonable to suggest that endurance athletes will see a direct 2-3% improvement in their sporting performance. 

In strength and power athletes, 2-3% increases in bench press and squat strength have been seen, as well as up to 20% increase in neuromuscular function and strength (the higher end being seen in less experienced athletes).

That about wraps about this series. I highly recommend reading my 5-part periodization article series, which you can find below.

References

Bosquet, Laurent, Jonathan Montpetit, Denis Arvisais, and I??igo Mujika. "Effects of Tapering on Performance." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 39, no. 8 (2007): 1358-365.

Lacey, James De, Matt Brughelli, Michael Mcguigan, Keir Hansen, Pierre Samozino, and Jean-Benoit Morin. "The Effects of Tapering on Power-Force-Velocity Profiling and Jump Performance in Professional Rugby League Players." Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 28, no. 12 (2014): 3567-570.

Mujika, I., A. Goya, E. Ruiz, A. Grijalba, J. Santisteban, and S. Padilla. "Physiological and Performance Responses to a 6-Day Taper in Middle-Distance Runners: Influence of Training Frequency." International Journal of Sports Medicine Int J Sports Med 23, no. 5 (2002): 367-73.

Murach, Kevin, and James Bagley. "Less Is More: The Physiological Basis for Tapering in Endurance, Strength, and Power Athletes." Sports 3, no. 3 (2015): 209-18.

Trinity, Joel D., Matthew D. Pahnke, Edwin C. Reese, and Edward F. Coyle. "Maximal Mechanical Power during a Taper in Elite Swimmers." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 38, no. 9 (2006): 1643-649.

Wilson, Jacob M., and Gabriel J. Wilson. "A Practical Approach to the Taper." Strength and Conditioning Journal 30, no. 2 (2008): 10-17.

Zaras, Nikolaos D., Angeliki-Nikoletta E. Stasinaki, Argyro A. Krase, Spyridon K. Methenitis, Giorgos P. Karampatsos, Giorgos V. Georgiadis, Konstantinos M. Spengos, and Gerasimos D. Terzis. "Effects of Tapering With Light vs. Heavy Loads on Track and Field Throwing Performance." Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 28, no. 12 (2014): 3484-495.

Overreaching and Overtraining [Part 1 of Peaking Series]

Picture Credit: www.onnit.com

SKIP TO PART 2 HERE

In order to see results and reap in the adaptations from exercise and training, an athlete or trainee must push their bodies past baseline, past their current limits. To maximize these gains, an athlete must also properly recover from training sessions so they can continue to train in a safe and efficient manner. Aside from adequate sleep, proper nutrition and nutrient intakes, one way athletes recover is by implementing periods of restoration, often called a deload. A deload is when the training stress is reduced in order for the athlete to realize their adaptations and to give their mind and body a well-deserved rest. A similar protocol, called a taper or peak, is when training stressed is acutely withdrawn to improve an athlete's performance measures beyond baseline, usually to prepare for an important sporting event or competition.

Before we dive into the specifics of a deloading or tapering protocol, we must better understand why they're needed in the first place. Part 1 will go over the concept of overreaching, overtraining, and what type of stressors and symptoms an athlete might experience as a result of hard training.

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Not all fatigue is made equal

Taken from Meeusen et al. (2013)

Acute fatigue is characterized by a short term disruption of homeostasis from training, often resulting in slight improvements in performance. However, if acute fatigue beings to accumulate from increasing training intensity or volume without adequate recovery, or without periods of rest, chronic fatigue can occur.

Chronic fatigue can be divided into 2 categories: overreaching and overtraining, where overreaching can be referred to as functional, or non-functional. 

Functional overreaching can be defined as a temporary decrease in performance lasting no more than a few days to weeks, while non-functional overreaching is defined by a decrease or no change in performance over weeks to months. If overreaching symptoms persist for prolong periods and performance begins to drop significantly, it is defined as overtraining, sometimes called overtraining syndrome.

I'm sure you've heard of the saying "there is no such thing as overtraining, only under recovery". While this is technically true, there are training volumes and intensities that an athlete simply can't adequately recover from without being in a drug-induced supra-physiological state. But unless you're an elite level Olympic athlete pushing the boundaries and closing in on a world record, or a beginner trainee attempting to perform an advanced training program, it's not likely you'll find yourself in that situation. Instead, overtraining syndrome develops when recovery is neglected whether it be due to laziness, or compromised due to financial situations, work schedules and unplanned life events. 

Training and adaptation is a multi-factorial equation, taking into account the inputs (types of movement, intensity, volume, frequency), outputs (recovery, fatigue management, sleep, nutrition) and everything in between (training history, individual response to exercise, genetics).

Overtraining is very real and can occur when the balance between training and recovery is not met.

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Types of Overtraining

Resistance-training dominant sports and endurance-training dominant sports have their own respective forms of overtraining. Sympathetic overtraining, often seen in team, strength and power sports, is characterized and diagnosed by an irregular increase in resting heart rates, cortisol concentrations, ECG abnormalities and a decrease in testosterone.

Parasympathetic overtraining often seen in endurance sports is characterized by a compromise of the neuroendocrine system, resulting in reduced responsiveness to stressors and increased sleeping times and increased incidences of depressive symptoms.

Keep in mind it's not the particular sport that causes a certain form of overtraining, rather, the type, volume and intensities of which training is carried in each type of sport. Despite these concrete definitions, overtraining is not black and white. Many sports are mixed in nature (team sports for example), having both resistance and endurance demands, so symptoms are known to overlap, making diagnosis more difficult.
 

Other Causes Of Overtraining

Overtraining has been hypothesized to come from prolonged periods of high-intensity and high-volume training. However, overtraining can also manifests from a set of complex factors outside of training and recovery. Existing disease or illness, psychological stress, school or work-related demands, as well as expectations from coaches, friends and teammates all play a role in the development of overtraining. While it is a responsibility for coaches to carefully monitor training loads and intensity; one must not forget about the complex biosystem of a human and the impact psychological stress can have on physical performance. Take a holistic approach when preventing and diagnosing overtraining to avoid prolonged periods of stagnation or poor performance.

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Monitoring Overtraining

The best way to monitor and prevent overtraining is to plan ahead. Applying proper periodization principles, allowing athletes to progress and reach peak performance without inducing overtraining syndrome. But things almost never go as planned, so various quantitative and qualitative  assessments should be used in conjunction with a periodized plan to monitor stress and exertion throughout any training program.

Below is a checklist used to diagnose overtraining syndrome by Meeusen et al (2013) with The European College of Sport Science and the American College of Sports Medicine.

Taken from Meeusen et al. (2013)

The checklist is complex and comprehensive, and most monitoring methods like disease diagnosis and blood work are outside the realm of practicing trainers and coaches. At the elite level of sports, sports scientists have access to advanced-technology, but for the majority of us, we need a more simple way to monitor our athletes.

For my athletes, I created a readiness monitor that gives me consistent and quantifiable insight on my athlete's recovery.

Even though the survey is marked on a 1-5 scale, the readiness monitor itself is very qualitative and subjective in nature. This readiness monitor's benefit is 2-fold:

1. It helps me gain a rough understanding of how my athlete is recovering and what he or she is experiencing throughout my training program.
   

2. It gives them an opportunity to keep a health/recovery diary, making them more aware of their recovery and their habits. Hopefully positively impacting their attention to recovery.

Part 2 will cover the difference between a deload and a taper, as well as specific tapering protocols to peak for various sports and competitions. Read Part 2 Here.

Concurrent Training: Science and Practical Application

Concurrent Training (CT) is defined as the combination of resistance and endurance training in a periodized program to maximize all aspects of physical performance. Unless an athlete is in a pure-power sport like Olympic Weightlifting, or a pure-endurance sport like long distance cycling; a combination of both power-related and endurance-related attributes are required to excel in mixed-type sports. Mixed type sports are sports that depend on several different energy systems and different strength and speed properties. MMA, boxing, basketball, soccer, hockey and many other team-based sports fall under this category.

In the world of bodybuilding and strength sports, cardio is used as an umbrella term for all types of endurance training protocols. Often as a joke among lifting circles, cardio has been stigmatized to "steal your gains", so far to the point that some lifters see it as a badge of honor to be out of shape and possess almost no cardiovascular conditioning in return for being able to lift a massive amount of weights.

In the world of endurance sports like running and cycling, strength training can be seen as an unnecessary training method that adds unwanted muscle mass to the frame of an endurance athlete, possibly slowing them down and being detrimental to their performance. The term "meathead" might even be applied to people who lift weights.

This article will shed some light on what cardio and strength training has to offer to each training demographic/niche and how a mixed-typed athlete can best organize their training so they reap in the benefits of both training modalities with little to no interference. 

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The Science and theories behind ct

In one of the first research studies carried out on the effects of concurrent training, Hickson (1980) observed that training both strength and endurance qualities simultaneously had detrimental effects on strength development but did not negatively impact aerobic qualities. Building off of research by Hickson, more recent studies have shown a wide variation of responses in concurrent training, both positive and negative. This suggest that CT methods are still inconslusive and variables such as genetic differences, modality of endurance training, nutritional status and training time may play a role in mediating the effects.

Termed the molecular signaling theory, it has been hypothesized that the distinct molecular signaling pathways of strength and endurance exercise adaptation may be incompatible and inhibit the development of each other.

Other theories speculate that the poor management of both resistance and endurance exercise variables may expose athletes to higher incidents of overreaching and overtraining. For example, the high volume nature of endurance training paired with heavy strength training may make recovery more difficult, increasing the risk of overtraining and injury to an athlete. In conjunction with observing the effects of CT, uncovering the potential mechanisms behind the molecular signaling theory is needed to understand how strength, power and endurance can be developed simultaenously. 

Molecular signaling theory

Taken from "Molecular Responses To Strength & Endurance Training - Are They Incompatible?"

Resistance training adaptations such as muscle fibre hypertrophy, strength and power acquisition are known to be mediated by molecular signaling pathways known as the AKT and mTOR pathways. Resistance exercise that create large force outputs, mechanical tension and stretch, as well as muscle damage and swelling are activators of these hypertrophic pathways (Brad Schoenfeld talks more in depth about this in his frequently cited research article - "The Mechanisms of Muscle Hypertrophy and Their Application to Resistance Training"). Many of the compound powerlifts that recruit larger amounts of muscle mass have the capability to create large force outputs and mechanical tension, while exercises such as isolation exercises taken to failure, drop sets, supersets, giant sets, contribute more to metabolic stress and cell swelling.

In contrast, prolonged and repetitive low intensity muscle contractions activate signaling pathways involving the enzymes AMPK and CaMK, which are responsible for adaptations related to endurance training such as mitochondrial biogensis; allowing you to walk, run, swim and bike further and more efficiently.

Capturing the attention of researchers, the observed suppression of mTOR signalling pathways by increased AMPK activation has been the focus and basis behind the molecular signaling interference theory. AMPK activation downregulates and can blunt the hypertrophic response to a resistance training workout or program by inhibiting mTOR and can increase protein degradation through other pathways we won't get too deep into. mTOR can even be downregulated indepedent of AMPK activation, through a family of proteins called SIRT (more information here for the nerds). What you need to know is that when performing cardio training during a resistance program, muscle hypertrophy, strength and power can be compromised. 

So were the bros right all along? Does cardio in-fact, kill your gains?

Not so fast. It is not uncommon to see increased endurance performance or improved resistance training outcomes with CT, thus several studies have made arguments for the limitations of the interference theory. In some cases, resistance training can upregulate AMPK, and aerobic exercise can also induce increases in mTOR activity; therefore a positive transfer effect might be present when intensity, volume and frequency of each training modality are strategically manipulated.

It should also be noted that the results of research studying the acute effects of exercise and molecular signaling cannot always be predictive of future chronic adaptations. If athletes have no CT experience, the interference effect might be just occur until the athletes acclimatizes the the CT methods. It is also possible that the interference effect may not be present until later into a training cycle where there is an accumulation of resistance and endurance training fatigue due to increased training loads, or intensity. For example, the original CT study by Hickson (1980) found there were no interference effects until the 8th week of training.

Since molecular signalling has been found to be highly variable depending on the training status of the individual (strength trained vs. endurance trained vs. completely untrained), CT variables must be prescribed based on athletes' current training status and previous training experience.

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Concurrent Training Effects on Resistance Training Adaptations

Varying modality, intensity, frequency and volume of training has been shown to affect the magnitude of molecular signaling and protein synthesis. Therefore we know that the degree of interference between signaling pathways can also vary depending on programming variables. Since AMPK downreulgates mTOR signaling and NOT vice versa, its hypothesized CT can be more detrimental to resistance training (RT) related adaptations compared to endurance training (ET) related adaptations. 

Muscle Hypertrophy

Muscle size and hypertrophy is a highly sought after adaptation in the fitness world, both as a means to improve metabolic health, and a way to achieve an aesthetic physique. 

With several studies concluding that CT blunts muscle hypertrophy, excessive training volume has been predicted to be the cause of overtraining and fatigue when comparing CT groups to resistance training only groups. Based on our knowledge of exercise adaptations, we should know that RT volumes performed by an elite bodybuilder cannot be concurrently trained successfully with ET volumes performed by an elite triathlete due to nutritional and time constraints. However, to date, there is no conclusive evidence that hypertrophy is blunted when low-volume aerobic exercises is added into a training program; some studies have even shown it might mitigate muscle loss (Study #1, Study #2). High volume ET on the contrary, can be detrimental due to the factors discussed above (interference theory OR overtraining/fatigue theory OR... both). For practical recommendations on how to avoid interfering with your hypertrophic workouts, read below in the practical application section.

Strength & power

In a large scale meta-analyses of CT effect sizes, Wilson et al (2012) observed that in many studies, power was significantly lowered during CT while muscle cross sectional area and strength was maintained. This suggests that force at high velocities (think of a vertical jump, NOT a heavy squat) may be affected to a more significant degree with concurrent ET than force at lower velocities. The mechanism behind this could be attributed to motor unit and specific muscle fiber type innervation. During classical long duration endurance exercises, the majority of muscle action and force production comes from low threshold, fatigue-resistant type I muscle fibers. There may be a shift from type IIx fibers to type IIa fibers or type IIa to type I fibers to accommodate the oxygen-demanding adaptations of endurance exercise during concurrent training therefore aerobic exercise can be detrimental to athletes that require a high rate of force development rate and power when poorly programmed into a periodized plan.

To better compliment the demands of strength and power sports, prescribing lower volume - higher intensity and velocity interval type ET may be more beneficial in terms of maintenance and improvement of power. This may be because of the similarities in the motor unit/muscle fibre recruitment patterns in RT and high-intensity based ET. When viewing this from an interference theory stand point, the high energy costs and high activation of AMPK from high-intensity ET could potentially magnify the interference effect but the research does not support this claim as there has been no cases of muscle mass loss when high-intensity ET is prescribed in a low-volume fashion. Research isn't conclusive but it is clear the intensity and volume of endurance training affect muscular strength and power outcomes.

When it comes to training modality, it is hypothesized that modalities that require a lot of eccentric muscle action can cause excessive muscle damage, further impeding the muscle recovery process from a challenging RT session. Because of this, predominantly concentric movements, are favored over running (a movement that includes a lot of eccentric contractions - think of every time your foot strikes the ground), like cycling and prowler pushes. Cycling, specifically hill climbing, can also resemble resistance-like loading patterns and can induce lower body hypertrophy that may compliment RT adaptations. Following this stream of thought, other ET modalities that possess lower eccentric muscle action and lower impact stress like swimming or modalities that have similar loading patterns to resistance training such as prowler-pushes and sled drags can also be used to improve cardiovascular conditioning when training concurrently. 

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Concurrent Training Effects on Endurance Adaptations

Well-trained athletes often show different responses to exercise compared to untrained individuals, endurance athletes are no different as they may see dissimilar improvements from RT compared to untrained or already resistance-trained individuals. High volume and high frequency endurance training make it hard for endurance athletes to improve muscle size, strength and power without cutting into the recovery process of ET. Paired with the high energy expenditure and AMPK levels from ET, CT can be problematic for endurance based athletes.

Wang et al (2012) showed that resistance training following endurance training elicited greater PGC-1a actavation (a regulator of energy metabolism and endurance adaptations) and therefore more oxidation capacity improvements than endurance training alone. The increase in activation of PCG-1a was thought to be related to the high amount of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lactate concentrations produced during CT vs. endurance training alone. AMPK activation however, was not a plausible explanation for the improvements in oxidative capacity as AMPK was similar in both the CT and ET-only group. The researchers suggest that the RT portion of the CT group upregulated mTOR, which had a positive effect on PGC-1a. The interactions between mTOR and PGC-1a also have implications for muscle and endurance performance.

Another study concluded that resistance training has positive implications for endurance performance, mainly due to increases in type IIa muscle fibers and a greater potential for force production (Study). This means endurance athletes that concurrently resistance train can improve their average and peak power outputs, which play a big factor during races and time trials. In addition, a study looking at the effects of CT found that pairing strength circuit training along with an ET program (same workout session) improved aerobic performance more than an ET program alone where VO2max and 4km time trial performance both increased slightly more in the CT group compared to the ET only group. The beneficial effects of RT for endurance athletes cannot be overlooked!

Resistance training can also benefit endurance events of different durations. For shorter, more anaerobic dominant endurance events like the 400m/800m run, most swimming events and many team sports, performance can be improved by increasing muscular strength and neuromuscular function that can't be achieved with ET alone. For long aerobic endurance events and competitions like marathon runners, and triathletes, improvements in performance can be attributed to the higher economy of movement induced by RT (study), which simply means endurance athletes that resistance trained were able to more efficiently use their energy to travel at any given velocity, saving them energy in a long race.

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Concurrent Training Timing

(AE = Aerobic Exercise)
(RE = Resistance Exercise)
Disclaimer: This is not my chart.

If we base our training order off the molecular signaling theory of the interference effect, ET would be best performed prior to RT (within the same day). Since AMPK downregulates mTOR and not vice versa, an ET session that raises AMPK levels will not have a chance to interrupt mTOR signalling if RT is performed after. But we also need to take into account other facts to help us maximize training adaptations and minimize any interference.

The interference theory can manifest in the form of negative interactions between protein activity and molecular signalling, but coaches cannot overlook the more simple explanations as to why there might be an interference effect when training several physical attributes or modalities. Reduced training quality can also be an explanation as to why CT causes interference problems. For example, after performing a ET session, performance in the subsequent RT session may be diminished due to pre-exhaustion. This is problematic if a particular athlete needs to prioritize his/her RT session because of their personal goals, weaknesses or position on a sports team. Coaches and athletes must plan and prioritize which training sessions are more important and the introduction of rest and nutrition must be taken into account to mitigate any interference effects.

In order to minimize the fatigue and the interference effect, a 24-hour recovery period between training sessions is suggested; the longer the better. However, this suggestion is often not practical for subelite or elite athletes that want to or are required to train 2 and up to 3 times a day. Based on the time course of AMPK elevation and it's downregulation of mTOR signaling, a minimum recovery time of 3 hours is suggested between ET and RT sessions. Although 3 hours is enough to reduce the molecular signaling part of the interference theory, its also suggested that 6 hours or more is needed to reduce the muscular fatigue from the previous ET bout and retain muscular performance during a subsequent RT session. When high-intensity ET was performed prior to RT, force production was reduced for at least 6  hours, while the capacity to perform higher volume RT was also diminished for up to 8 hours. As noted by Robinuea et al (2014), technical and tactical training sessions in team sports also have an cardiovascular and endurance component to it, not scheduling adequate rest before a subsequent RT session could be detrimental to performance.

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Nutritional Protocols For Concurrent Training

Scheduling adequate recovery time in between RT and ET sessions can also allow for nutritional interventions to decrease the interference effect. Since AMPK is increased when the energy status of an athlete is low, RT in theory, is better performed in a fed-state to allow for optimal mTOR signaling post-workout. Ingesting carbohydrates and high-quality, leucine-containing protein supplements or whole foods to fuel post-exercise-induced increases in muscle glycogen and protein synthesis is crucial when training concurrently. In contrast, performing ET while in a fasted state (low-intensities) can promote PGC-1a and AMPK signaling, exemplifying ET adaptations. 

Here is my article on nutritional periodization.

Here is a research review on nutritional methods used to maximize concurrent training.

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Practical Application & Recommendations

In light of this research, endurance athletes should focus on programming moderate volume, moderate to high intensity RT around their prioritized ET, sport-specific, sessions.

Strength and power-based athletes should include low to moderate volume ET in order to attenuate the interference effect while still reaping in the benefits of ET such as improving blood flow for recovery or building some general work capacity in the off-season or restoration period.

For mixed-type and team sport athletes, the proportion of RT and ET should be strategically programmed based on the energetic and muscular demands of the sport, an athlete's strength & weaknesses, as well as their position on the team.

The Dilemma 

So when it comes to within-day training order, there is a dilemma on whether RT should come before or after ET. 

If RT comes before ET, performance during the RT session will hypothetically be higher quality due an absence of residual ET fatigue but hypertrophic signaling will be downregulated after the ET session.

If RT comes after ET, the glucose/substrate depletion and residual fatigue from ET will reduce the training quality of the RT session and may also blunt the hypertrophic response. Specifically, AMPK is upregulated by increased energy expenditure and substrate depletion, negatively affecting the mTOR pathway.

So what do you do? It really depends on your goals.

For me to offer any rigid periodization schemes or training methods would be counterproductive. Coaches and trainers need to plan their athletes' demands, circumstances, strength, weaknesses and limitations. Training should be evidence-based but there is also a lot of room to be creative in their program design. I'll give you some tips:

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If You Are training for hypertrophy...

• Endurance training after resistance training if your ET session is low to moderate volume. The ET session ideally will use different muscles than the ones emphasized in your RT session. It is still unknown whether the molecular signaling theory of the interference effect is peripherally driven - meaning muscle specific, or if it is systemic (whole body interference regardless of muscle trained) sessions. If the interference effect is peripherally driven, a viable strategy would be to perform an upper body lifting session, followed by a lower body only cardio session like cycling. 

• Endurance training before resistance training if you have 3-6 hours of recovery time in between the two sessions and are able to refuel with carbohydrates and some protein.

• Use low-impact ET modalities like prowler, cycling, sled drags, elliptical, swimming, etc... to avoid any more stress on your joints and muscles

• Use moderate-volume, low-intensity ET to improve heart health, blood flow to working muscles as a form of recovery, control energy expenditure to mediate diet/macros and calories intake.

• Use Zone 1 to warm up prior to lifting sessions.

• Use Zone 2 on off days or as a separate training session to improve the benefits discussed above (heart health, energy expenditure, etc.)

• Additionally, you can use Zones 4 and 5 as a "finisher" to hypertrophy-based workouts as a form of metabolic stress. These zones recruits similar muscle fibers and uses the same energy systems as strength training sessions.

If you are training for strength...

• Endurance training after resistance training if your ET session is low to moderate volume. The ET session ideally will use different muscles than the ones emphasized in your RT session. Same rule applies from the hypertrophy section.
  

• Endurance training before resistance training if you have 6+ hours of recovery time in between the 2 sessions and are able to refuel with carbohydrates and some protein. Since strength training emphasizes sport technique (powerlifting, weightlifting, Strongman) more so than general hypertrophy training and operates at higher intensities (as a % of 1RM), it is extra important that muscle residual fatigue is as low as possible.
  

• Use low-impact ET modalities like prowler, cycling, sled drags, elliptical, swimming, etc... to avoid any more stress on your joints and muscles.
  

• Use Zone 2 on off days or as a separate training session to improve the benefits discussed above (heart health, energy expenditure, etc.) I personally like doing Zone 2 easier, low-impact aerobic workouts with a mobility and stretching routine to promote recovery on off days.
  

• Zone 4 and 5 can be used as intervals on the prowler, sled, rower or ski-erg to increase top end cardiovascular conditioning to help you improve your work capacity for high volume lifting workouts.
  

If you are training for power...

• Endurance training session after your resistance training session if your ET session is low to moderate volume.
  

• Endurance training before resistance training is definitely not recommended. If it must be done, take as much recovery time as possible between sessions and refuel adequately and avoid working the same muscle groups. Pre-fatigued power workouts can be dangerous! Ideally rest 24+ hours.
  

• Use low-impact ET modalities like prowler, cycling, sled drags, elliptical, swimming, etc... to avoid any more stress on your joints and muscles
  

• Use Zone 2 on off days or as a separate training session to improve the benefits discussed above (heart health, energy expenditure, etc.) I personally like doing Zone 2 easier, low-impact aerobic workouts with a mobility and stretching routine to promote recovery on off days.
  

If you are an long event endurance athlete...

• In almost all situations, resistance training AFTER endurance training is the best choice. You avoid pre-fatiguing yourself before your sport-specific training sessions (endurance training) and avoid downregulating mTOR to any significant degree.
  

• Resistance training should focus on complex and compound exercises that span across several different muscles and movement types. Use weights anywhere from 70-90% of your 1RM. This is important for building a strong and healthy body that can withstand the high volumes of endurance training by building tissue resilience, tendon strength and core strength. Avoid using silly training methods like 30+ rep sets with 50% of your 1RM in hopes of building muscular endurance. Endurance will be built specifically in your sport already.
  

• Time is valuable. Don't fall into the trap of training on unstable training surfaces or overly-specific exercises that try to mimic movements from your endurance sport. Stick with the basics. Push, pull, hip hinge, squats, etc...
  

• Endurance athletes training in the off-season or restoration period can experiment with fasted training. More on this in my nutritional periodization article.
  

If you are a shorter event endurance athlete...

• In almost all situations, resistance training AFTER endurance training is the best choice. You avoid pre-fatiguing yourself before your sport-specific training sessions (endurance training) and avoid downregulating mTOR to any significant degree.
  

• Shorter event endurance athletes like 400-800m runners or track cyclists will greatly benefit from resistance training and is almost a requirement to excel in many short endurance sports. Use weights anywhere from 70-100% of your 1RM to build muscle mass and strength. Power training can be included using anywhere from 30-70% of 1RM to match the demands of the sport and can benefit endurance athletes involved in sports that require bursts of high-intensity efforts.
  

• Again, don't fall into the trap of training on unstable surfaces or overly-specific exercises. Exercise selection though, should be more carefully planned to match some of the movement patterns seen in the endurance sport. There is a bigger carry over for shorter event endurance athletes vs. longer event athletes.
  

• Endurance athletes training in the off-season or restoration period can experiment with fasted training. More on this in my nutritional periodization article.
  

If you are a mixed type athlete or team sport athlete

Mixed type sport athletes can have vastly different demands depending on the sport itself and the position played. Luckily through a needs-analysis, all sports can be plotted onto a endurance and strength attribute spectrum. Below is a figure outlining the physical demands of several sports.

Start by mapping out the specific strength and endurance demands, movement patterns, and energy demands of your position or sport and follow the principles discussed above to get the most out of your training sessions!

FREE EBOOK CHAPTER DOWNLOAD

Chapter 7 of the eBook, “The Sport-Specific Trap - Revisiting Dynamic Correspondence for Combat Sports” talks about key concepts to consider when selecting exercises to enhance combat sports performance and some common mistakes coaches make.

Periodization 401: The Complexities and Problems of Periodization Theory

Periodization, the systematic planning of exercise and athletic training. It is one of the cornerstones of high level sports and physical performance and without it, training has no context and no direction.

This series will cover the big picture as well as dive into the small nuances of what makes periodization such an important topic to learn for any aspiring strength & conditioning coach or high performance trainer. 

This fifth installment will discusses the complexities of periodization and what to take into account when reading research about periodization.
 

Read Part 101: Introduction
Read Part 201: Training Variation
Read Part 202: Training Effect & Phases
Read Part 301: Review of Periodization Models
Read Part 401: The Complexities and Problems of Periodization Theory

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Unanswered questions about periodization

So far, we've discussed the history of periodization, specifically how it came to be and why it was needed. We've also covered the physiological basis behind periodization and how training effects and variation play a role in creating a yearly and monthly plan for competitive athletes. Lastly, we dissected various periodization models and determined their defining characteristics. 

On the surface, it may seem like these periodized training variables are already set in stone and backed by science, and athletes can achieve their best performance results just by following a strategically-written training program. However, there are still many unanswered questions about periodization:

Variation is needed, but HOW MUCH is needed?

What is the best periodization model for this sport ___?

What is the best periodization model for this athlete ___?

What is the best tapering/peaking method?

Does performance improve because of periodized and strategically planned variations, or simply because of a novel training stimulus?

How do you utilize periodization with your clients and athletes if you're... a high performance coach? A powerlifter? A personal trainer? A weight loss specialist? A dietician? A sports nutritionist? 

Does periodization even matter to you? Should you even care?

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Problems and limitations to the theory of periodization

Periodization philosophy is largely based on the fact that adaptations to physical exercise can be predicted and that it follows a determinable pattern, which can be problematic. The genotype-VO2max related Heritage Family Study as well as other studies looking at resistance training-focused interventions show several examples of how one exercise protocol can result in a wide range of responses in different populations and different subjects.

In the Heritage Family Study, an endurance training protocol was able to increase the average VO2max of the subjects by 19%. However, 5% of the participants saw no change in their VO2 values, while another 5% saw an increase of up to 50%. In a resistance training intervention, 12 weeks of a strength training program saw a 54% average increase in strength. The "non-responders" saw no increase in strength while more highly sensitive responders saw a 250% increase. 250%!!

Training adaptations are not only mediated by the training program itself (assuming adherence to the training protocols are close to 100%), but by other factors such as initial training age of the subjects, nutritional and dietary habits/protocols, recovery and restoration of the athletes (are they sleeping enough?), and exercise technique. 

Initial Training Experience and Age of the Subjects

Like I alluded in the earlier articles, the initial fitness or training experience of a subject plays a factor in the results we expect to see after prescribing them a training protocol. Because novice and beginner trainees have low initial functioning performance measures, research studies focused on periodized training programs are unable to discern which periodization model works better for this population. When you're a beginner, almost everything works!

For example, in the realm of concurrent training (strength and endurance training together and their interaction), untrained individuals are usually able to increase both their strength and endurance performance with minimal interference between the 2 modalities. Trained individuals on the other hand, experience a greater interference effect when performing concurrent training: endurance training diminishes the adaptations of their resistance training and vice versa.

Nutrition and Dietary Protocols, Recovery & Restoration.

Nutrition has a large impact on training outcomes and adaptations. The fact that some strength, endurance or periodization studies don't account for dietary intake is problematic. For example, if protein intake is not controlled for in subjects of a strength training based research study, no amount of program-periodizing can come to any consistent conclusions about periodization and muscle strength or hypertrophy. I've written about nutritional periodization in detail here - check it out.

Recovery and rest obviously play a big role in the training process as well as it directly affects training performance, fatiguability of the athlete, and at the end of the day, determines how much progress they'll be able to make.

Exercise Technique

This is a variable that is often overlooked in research studies looking at the effects of periodization on strength in particular. Athletes and subjects that possess more biomechanically efficient lifting technique have a higher ceiling for strength acquisition, therefore may experience greater strength gains on any given training program. Subjects that are inexperienced, or have glaring flaws in their lifting technique are not able to reap in the full benefits of a periodized plan as their technique acts as a bottleneck for progress.

There is no quantitative way to assess lifting technique, therefore it is a variable that is hard to control in a research setting. I'm a firm believer that the execution of the lift, or of training itself, is very important in order to get the most out of a training plan.

Due to the practicality and perhaps lack of research funding, many of these variables I've discussed above are not taking into account when researchers design a study looking at different periodization models. Take these research study results with a grain of salt and remember: principles are always better than rigid, inflexible methods and systems.

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The Complexity of human performance

As you can tell, the reality of human biology is very complex, much more complex of that of a car, a phone, or a computer. Despite what we know about exercise physiology and exercise science, strategic and well-planned training inputs into a human biosystem does not always ensure consistent predicted outcomes. As a consequence, performance, a multidimensional phenomenon comprised of physical, psychological and emotional factors, is hard to predict.

How much adaptation and how much progress an athlete makes from a training program can vary depending on an individual's hormonal response, genetic predispositions, motivation, stress levels, as well as transient social and environmental variables like the ones listed above. John Kiely, a respected coach and researcher, suggests that there must be great care taken when attempting to use isolated examples of athletes or periodization methods when trying to create an intervention or training program. In some cases, an athlete may have performed successfully despite a strategic periodized program, rather than because of it. This is a matter of recognizing confounding variables and avoiding falling into cognitive biases. Critical thinking and questions should be put forth during any periodized program:  What are the individuals that don't see results doing differently? What confounding variables are we overlooking that have contributed to the success of an athlete or team other than the periodized program?

"Periodization Paradigms in the 21st Century: Evidence-Led Or Tradition-Driven?" by John Kiely (2012) is one of the top 5 most important articles on strength & conditioning and fitness I have ever read. Kiely shares a unique perspective on the complexities of periodization and is able to articulate points I could not have put my finger on. I highly recommend you read it when you get a chance. I have summarized some of his ideas in my article but have also added some of my own.

Another article I suggest is a 2017 review by Afonso et al, titled "Is Empirical Research on Periodization Trustworthy? A comprehensive Review of Conceptual and Methodological Issues".

Modern advanced monitoring tools such as blood lactate measurements, heart rate variability and GPS-tracking technology are also becoming increasing popular, further guiding the scientific basis behind sports and exercise planning. Despite all these advances though, human performance can still run an unpredictable course. Kiely uses the analogy of Earth's weather prediction system: although climate and space technology are very advanced, weather on the smaller scale is very complex and still unpredictable. *Related - If you've never heard of the Chaos Theory or Butterfly effect, here is some information on it. 

This is not to argue that templated periodization programs do not work, rather, proper monitoring of athletes and on-going manipulation of variables should be emphasized and used in conjunction to suit the individual athlete or team. Periodization methods are not set in stone and models are not used exclusively. Some coaches may believe a certain periodization model is superior, when reality their methods are based off of a combination of different models. 

With all that said, let's revisit the definition of periodization.

Previously we said: Periodization is the systematic planning of exercise and athletic training.

A more suitable and all-encompassing definition: Periodization is the systematic planning of exercise and athletic training, including the ongoing process of measuring objectives, outcomes and altering methods in the face of emerging information.

Applying these principles of periodization can be as simple, or as complex as you want, or need it to be. We'll be talking about the application of periodization in the next article.

5-Part Periodization Series Links:
Read Part 101: Introduction
Read Part 201: Training Variation
Read Part 202: Training Effect & Phases
Read Part 301: Review of Periodization Models
Read Part 401: The Complexities and Problems of Periodization Theory

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Periodization 301: Review Of Periodization Models

Periodization, the systematic planning of exercise and athletic training. It is one of the cornerstones of high level sports and physical performance and without it, training has no context and no direction.

This series will cover the big picture as well as dive into the small nuances of what makes periodization such an important topic to learn for any aspiring strength & conditioning coach or high performance trainer. 

This fourth part will cover and review various periodization models and their defining characteristics. 

Read Part 101: Introduction
Read Part 201: Training Variation
Read Part 202: Training Effect & Phases
Read Part 301: Review of Periodization Models
Read Part 401: The Complexities and Problems of Periodization Theory

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Traditional Periodization

Popularized by sport scientists such as Matveyev and Tudor Bompa, traditional periodization (TP) was one of the first models of periodization created. TP is characterized by the concurrent development of technical, cardiovascular and strength-related abilities, whereby the initial phase is high-volume and low-intensity in nature, progressing towards a low-volume and high-intensity training protocol.  

TP is often referred to as "linear periodization" because of its linear increase in intensity and linear decrease in volume over the training macrocycle. However, this name may be inappropriate when viewed on the mesocycle level, as TP programs still have undulating and wave-like characteristics. Dr. Michael Stone, a world-renowned sports physiologist also believes that TP is confused with the term "linear" because volume is sometimes erroneously calculated using the number of repetitions and sets. In order to properly calculate and monitor training stress, volume load with the consideration intensity must be used. While the set-rep scheme can remain the same, the intensity can fluctuate and change.

For example: 3 sets of 5 reps @ 70% of 1RM is vastly different from 3 sets of 5 reps @ 85% of 1RM in terms of motor unit recruitment and training stress. This common strategy in non-traditional periodization models where "heavy" and "light" days can be used, while the set-rep scheme remains the same. Volume load variation and undulation should define the periodization model and type, NOT the set-rep scheme alone. 

Even "non-linear" or non-traditional periodization models possess linear characteristics when viewed on the macrocyclic-scale, progressing from a state of high-volume low-intensity training, to lower-volume higher-intensity training. However, the undulations of volume and intensity occur more frequently on the mesocycle-level, perhaps week to week, or even day to day (daily undulating periodization). Due to all these factors, the term traditional periodization is better suited. The figure below shows the manipulation of volume and intensity over several phases of a traditionally periodized training program. 

Taken from NSCA Seminar by Nick Winkleman (Athlete Profiling: Choosing a Periodization System to Maximize Individual Performance." Proceedings of NSCA 2012 National Conference, Providence, Rhode Island.

Here is an example of a 12-week TP resistance training program:
Mesocycle 1 - Weeks 1-4: 5 sets of 10 reps @ 65-70% 1RM
Mesocycle 2 - Weeks 5-8: 4 sets of 6 reps @ 75-80% 1RM
Mesocycle 3 - Weeks 9-12: 3 sets of 4 reps @ 85-90% 1RM

In this example, the volume load is decreasing from each mesocycle, while the average intensity is increasing. The main characteristic of TP is that the variation of volume and intensity happen between mesocycles, with little variation occurring within each mesocycle. This goes in line with the concurrent development of physical attributes, where Tudor Bompa believes some traits are best developed together to avoid the interference effect. For example, hypertrophy-based resistance training will be paired with aerobic system development as they both improve under high-volume training. While strength and power training will be paired with anaerobic energy system development and explosive strength and power will be developed simultaneously with alactic and specific endurance work.

TP is more beneficial for novice trainees and lifters as intensity is increased at a slow and gradual pace (from one mesocycle to another), allowing for an un-rushed acquisition of structural and technical changes such as mitochondrial biogenesis and muscle hypertrophy to occur. As discussed previously in Part 201, the development of these abilities follow a sequential order, where hypertrophy and aerobic-based qualities are developed before power, anaerobic and alactic qualities. TP is an excellent model for novice trainees that have not been accustomed to high training volumes and intensities, and can prepare them for future workloads and perhaps other periodization models. 

Defining Characteristics Of A Traditional Periodization Model:

• A macrocycle starts off with high-volume, low-intensity training

• A macrocycle ends off with low-volume, high-intensity training

• Physical attributes are all developed simultaenously

• Variations and undulations in volume and intensity occur from MESOCYCLE to MESOCYCLE.

What Traditional Periodization IS NOT:

• Not to be confused with "linear" increases in intensity from week to week.
  Example:
  5x5 @ 135lbs
  5x5 @ 145lbs
  5x5 @ 155lbs...
  This is a form a progression and is not a defining characteristic of the traditional periodization model.

Limitations of traditional periodization

While TP may be beneficial for novice trainees due to its concurrent development of physical abilities, it may be sub-optimal for intermediate or advanced athletes across a wide range of sports and performance settings. Many other factors also contribute to the need for a revision of the TP model of training, such as:

• Need for contuinual progress and improved performance

• Need for training stressor management in team sports

• Sports that have multiple competitions or a longer competitive season

One major limitation of the TP model is that TP is optimized for climatic sports, sports that require only several performance or one performance over a short-time span. TP does not take into consideration  seasonal sports or team sports that usually possess a longer competition period. An aggressive taper in the pre-season or pre-competition phase of training prepares athletes well for the beginning of the competitive season, however can be detrimental in keeping consistent performance measures over the span of the season.

TP-based programs are also hard to implement with large groups of athletes that participate in regular sport practice, competition and travelling. Seasonal team sport athletes need to maintain a base level of physical fitness during the long in-season in order to prevent detraining effects, therefore the planning of physical training must be altered during the competition period and the pre-competition or preparatory period. Since there is little to no variation in volume and intensity between microcycles/within the mesocycles, using a TP model in seasonal or team sports can be problematic. Athletes are essentially "stuck" with a specific volume and intensity scheme in any given mesocycle, therefore TP is often suggested to be inflexible for scenarios in which athletes need lower or higher intensities of work.

For example, we'll compared soccer player A and soccer player B on the same team.

Soccer player A plays on the starting line up and gets a lot of playing time. 
Soccer player B is relatively new and doesn't get a lot of playing time.

These 2 athletes will need different strength and conditioning maintenance programs in between games and in the competition season because they have uneven playing times, and therefore stress their bodies different. The TP-model doesn't allow soccer player B to jump into more high intensity lifting and endurance sessions that are needed for him to maintain his fitness attributes if they are still at the beginning of a "higher volume" phase. There is a need for different periodization methods depending on the sport, and the position of each player on the team. In team-based sports whose competition season lasts 20-35 weeks, a TP model of training has shown to lead to reductions in maximal strength, muscle mass, maximal speed, as well as the ability to recover between matches (Citation 1, 2). 

Even in individual sports, the increase in financial motivation and total number of competitions a year (play more games/compete in more matches = more money) calls for the revision of the TP model in order to produce more consistent results year round. The slow, monthly-undulatory nature of TP cannot achieve this.

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Non-Traditional Periodization

Much like how TP is mistakenly named linear periodization, non-traditional periodization is often called undulating periodization and misguidedly named non-linear. Non-traditional periodization should technically encompass all the variations and revisions of the original TP.

Firstly, the name "non-linear" is misguided because programs can be viewed as linear or non-linear depending on the size of the scoped used to view the training program. If you step back and look at the big picture, most programs will improve performance over time. If we draw a line of best fit, does this mean every program is "linear"? Perhaps.

Secondly, all types of periodized programs are also undulatory in nature, the degree or time-scale of which undulation occurs is what defines the different models of periodization and is dependent on the type of sport, athlete as well as the time frame given to prepare. 

For the sake of consistency, non-traditional periodization (NTP) will refer to any of the 4 specific subcategories: reverse periodization (RP), weekly undulating periodization (WUP), daily undulating periodization (DUP) and block periodization (BP). 

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Reverse Periodization

Reverse periodization (RP) is a model offered by Ian King, an Australian strength & conditioning coach, who characterized RP as initial phases of low-volume, high-intensity training, moving onto higher volume, lower-intensity training as a competition nears. This is essentially a "reverse" of the TP model. 

Since training variables in a periodized program are developed in a general to specific order, using a RP model-based program would be most suitable for long aerobic endurance sports like road cycling and running, which have competition demands that are high-volume and lower-intensity in nature. The TP model also addresses the general to specific continuum, but mainly for strength and power based sports.

Figure 2 and Figure 3 outlines the difference between TP and RP in terms of preparing for an endurance event (taken from "Base Endurance: Move Forwards with Reverse Periodisation").

Defining Characteristics Of A REVERSE Periodization Model:

• A macrocycle starts off with low-volume and high-intensity training

• A macrocycle ends off with high-volume and low-intensity training

Limitations of Reverse Periodization

The RP model shares many of the same drawbacks as the traditional model, notably, its inflexibility for team sport athletes and non-climatic sports.

An obvious limitation to reverse periodization is that it cannot be applied to power and strength sports, where competitions are high-intensity in nature. Since it is known that volume load is a larger contributor to fatigue than intensity, strength and power-based sport performance will suffer if an athlete heads into competition in a fatigued state. Even in the case where fatigue is strategically-controlled, reducing the intensity over the training cycle will hinder the expression of strength and power and violates the principle of specificity.

In addition, RP does not take into consideration residual training effects. Research has shown that high-intensity resistance training can improve time trial performance via improvements in maximal strength and RFD in elite cyclists - one reason to keep some high-intensity sessions when close to an endurance sport competition. High-intensity training adaptations detrain at a faster rate than cumulative low-intensity training adaptations, therefore if high-intensity training is not performed as competition gets closer, performance in endurance athletes that require intermittent bursts of high-intensity may suffer.

Research comparing RP with other forms of periodization showed that although RP was less effective for strength and hypertrophy compared to TP, RP was more beneficial than TP and daily undulating periodization for increasing muscular endurance (study 1, study 2). RP may be a viable strategy for endurance-based sports but has many pitfalls when applied to strength or power-based sports.

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Undulating periodization

Undulating periodization, specifically daily (DUP) and weekly (WUP) undulating periodization are models that can be characterized by a greater frequency of variation in volume and intensity, achieved on the daily and weekly level. In comparison to TP, the greater variation of training is suggested to be more optimal for experienced athletes and team sports athletes.

DUP consists of day to day variations in volume and intensity. Below is an example of a endurance-based training and a resistance-based training set up.

DUP Configuration of 1 week in a 4-Week Mesocycle (Endurance Training)

• Monday: Low Intensity Steady State

• Wednesday: Lactate Threshold Training

• Friday: High-intensity Intervals

DUP Configuration of 1 week in a 4-Week Mesocycle (Resistance Training)

• Monday: 5x8 @ 70% 1RM

• Wednesday: 4x4 @ 85% 1RM

• Friday: 3x1 @ 95% 1RM

WUP on the other hand, consists of week to week variations in volume and intensity.

WUP Configuration of a 4-Week Mesocycle (Endurance Training)

• 1st Week: Low Intensity Steady State

• 2nd Week: Lactate Threshold Training

• 3rd Week: High-Intensity Intervals

• 4th Week: Unloading/Deload Week

WUP Configuration of a 4-Week Mesocycle (Resistance Training)

• 1st Week: 5x8 @ 70% 1RM

• 2nd Week: 4x4 @ 85% 1RM

• 3rd Week: 3x1 @ 95% 1RM

• 4th Week: Unloading/Deload Week

A popular example of a DUP-based program would be the Westside Barbell Method, while an example of a WUP-based program would be Wendler's 531 program.

Undulating periodization-based programs have become increasing popular across all sports because of its fatigue management and within-mesocycle variations. Coaches have found that volume and intensity can undulate from day to day or week to week, while still achieving the performance and physical attribute improvements comparable to more traditionally based training programs. This flexibility is particularly evident for in-season or athletes that are in their competition-season.

If a team coach requires a hard sport practice the day of a maximal strength training session, the maximal strength session can be pushed back in replacement of a workout targeting local muscle endurance or recovery when using a DUP model of training. DUP programs are also able to stimulate different energy systems and motor units all within the same week. Being able to stimulate both low-intensity and high-intensity adaptations within the same week has important implications for retaining physical performance during long in-season competition periods, a goal TP cannot achieve.

Another example: if a particular sport requires athletes to perform anaerobic work during playing time, but not so much aerobic throughout the in-season, the flexibility of DUP and WUP allows the inclusion of recovery and light aerobic sessions to retain and maintain a base level of aerobic conditioning without being chained to the confines of a TP-based training model where training intensity is based on the mesocycle goal.

The use of heavy and light days in a training week is also considered a form of DUP and can help manage fatigue more efficiently. As Nick Winkleman says: "DUP is great for maintenance, it allows for exposure but not depletion of energy or accumulation of fatigue".

The figures below shows the manipulation of volume and intensity over several phases of a DUP/WUP-based training program and examples of the use of alternating heavy and light days within a training week.

3x/Week Training Frequency.

4x/Week Training Frequency

Defining Characteristics Of An undulating Periodization Model:

• Undulations of volume and intensity occur on a week-to-week or day-to-day scale

Looking at some Research

DUP's flexibility can also be utilized in scenarios where the training environment is unplanned or unpredictable. A study by Peterson et al (2008) observed the effects of DUP versus TP on experienced, trained firefighters, whose job is usually unplanned and stressful in nature. DUP was able to accommodate for these factors by rotating endurance-days, strength-days and power-days. These different pathways were stimulated in a way where no one system was overly fatigued while progress could still be made. At the end of the 12-week intervention, the DUP group saw greater improvements in strength, power and firefighter-specific performance measures.

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Block periodization

Block periodization (BP) originally called the Coupled Successive System by Yuri Verkoshansky, was developed and popularized by figures such as Verkoshansky himself, Anatoliy Bondarchuk and Vladimir Issurin. BP is considered an advanced periodization-model directed towards advanced, elite-level athletes. The basis behind BP is that elite-level athletes who are reaching the functional limits of their physical performance require highly concentrated training loads in order to further increase performance. In BP, a concentrated high-volume load "block" of training is directed towards a select group of physical capabilities, where these adaptations can be realized in the subsequent low-volume block.

BP heavily involves the concepts of cumulative and residual effects and deeply emphasizes sequential development of abilities. This is suitable for athlete already possess a solid training base and are able to handle several microcycles of very high-volume concentrated training. Although this type of training provides an optimal amount of saturation on the physical abilities that are selected, it comes at the expense of other motor abilities that are pushed to the side. For example, in a block dedicated to power training, aerobic qualities and muscular endurance might be comprised, but the BP model accounts for this by including a minimal amount of work to at least maintain these qualities.

Terms like "accumulation", "transmutation" and "realiziation" are also used in BP to describe the sequential development of phases. The accumulation phase focuses on basic abilities such as aerobic endurance and hypertrophy, the transmutation phase focuses on sport-specific abilities, while the realization phase focuses on restoration and tapering. As one can see, there can be parallels drawn between BP-based and TP-based periodization models. The figure below shows the compatibility of different motor abilities based on the dominant motor ability trained during a block - proposed by Vladmir Issurin. 

Defining Characteristics Of A block Periodization Model:

• The use of concentrated blocks of training loads

• Deep emphasis on cumulative and residual training effects

Looking at Some Resesarch

Elite endurance athletes spend the majority of their training time utilizing low-intensity training, with small bouts of high-intensity training to peak for a competition. However, the specific organiziation of these 2 training zones and methods are still unclear. Research by García-Pallarés et al (2010) found that a BP model improved performance more than a TP model in elite level kayakers despite the BP program being 10 weeks shorter. Taking a look at the details of the study design, it should be noted that the BP program included a higher percentage of high-intensity training, therefore making it hard to conclude whether the benefits came from superior distribution of the training load, or the increased concentration of high-intensity training. When comparing different periodization models and different distribution of training, intensity and volume must be equated and accounted for.

In another study, Rønnestad et al (2012) looked at the effects of TP and BP on cycling performance in well-trained cyclist. The intervention lasted 4 weeks, while the volume and intensity of training were similarly matched between the TP and BP group. The TP group performed 2 high-intensity training sessions interspersed by high-volume, low-intensity aerobic training every week. The BP group performed a full week of high-intensity training consisting of 5 training sessions, followed by 1 high-intensity training session interspersed with low-intensity aerobic training for the subsequent 3 weeks. The results of this study showed the BP group improved their VO2max values, peak power output and power output at 2mmol/L blood lactate, while no changes occurred in the TP-based group.

Unlike the García-Pallarés et al (2010) study, the 2 groups in this study performed an identical number of high-intensity sessions, therefore the performance increase was most likely due to superior organization of training and not from an increased concentration of high-intensity sessions. Aside from these improvements however, lactate threshold and cycling economy remained unchanged in both groups, as expected by the researches due to the brief nature of the 4-week intervention. From this study, we see that a high concentration of training load allowed for a stronger training stimulus needed to improve performance variables in elite athletes. Whether that increase in VO2max has an influence on actual endurance race performance, is another question.

While not all programs will look exactly the same as the models above, many periodized programs share many of the characteristics of at least one of the models above. You'd even be surprised that some training programs deemed as "non-periodized" are infact, periodized to a degree.

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Periodized vs. Non-periodized programs

A large majority of the research literature state that periodized training programs are effective across many measures of strength, power and motor performance for both men and women of varying training age and levels compared to non-periodized programs (Citations #1, #2). This should not come as a surprise as using kinesiology and sport science-based training methods allows coaches to view training adaptations in a more predictable course, and therefore they are able to adjust the subsequent training cycle to consolidate weaknesses or errors from the previous cycle. This is the overarching theme in sports planning and exercise performance. 

In cases where periodized training showed no benefits compared to non-periodized training, often, the subjects had a low level of initial fitness and/or the length of the intervention was not long enough. An example of this is a study on the effects of volume and intensity periodization on strength in novice trainees. When a "non-periodized" program was volume matched with a traditional and non-traditional periodization model, strength gains on the squat and bench press were similar between groups. Baker et al (1994) concluded that over short training cycles, non-periodized strength training programs result in the same gains a periodized programs. 

So what's the problem with short programs or study lengths?

Periodization models develop physical attributes in sequences and adaptations to training take time. Too short of an intervention does not allow this sequential development to happen. Future training cycles should be built upon using previous ones. It seems the benefits from a periodized program are accentuated when it is used in a longer time frame. When Stone et al (1999) analyzed 15 periodization studies, it was found that 13 studies showed improved results from a periodized program over a non-periodized program.

Rethink the term "non-periodized"

All programs, are infact, periodized to a certain degree. By now, you should know periodization simply means the structuring of training cycles. If there is no structure, there is no program. While some people may consider this semantics, it really isn't. A training program that offers random variations in training load and training variables is still a periodized program (a poorly periodized one). It can be even argued that variation and novelty itself is the key to performance increases, rather than strategically planning. 

Although some coaches might claim certain models of periodization are the "best" or are superior compared to other models, it is foolish to think that a one set of rules or a rigid system can accomodate the performance demands of athletes from different ages, sports and environmental constraints. 

Next time, we'll take a look at the application of these models and dive into why they're called "models" and not programs. We will also discuss the problems and limitations of periodization and what to do moving forwards.

5-Part Periodization Series Links:
Read Part 101: Introduction
Read Part 201: Training Variation
Read Part 202: Training Effect & Phases
Read Part 301: Review of Periodization Models
Read Part 401: The Complexities and Problems of Periodization Theory

Nutritional Periodization: Diet Periodization for Better Performance

When it comes to the discussion of improving performance and fitness, one can't forget about the role of a proper diet and how much our day to day nutrition affects how we feel and perform. I've been going into detail about training periodization in my last few articles, and periodization for nutrition is something I've been planning to bring up as well.

So what is nutritional periodization, or periodized nutrition? Simply, planning and structuring of a diet based on the goals and demands of a trainee or athlete. Since training variables like intensity, volume, competition schedule and practices change from season to season and one training cycle to the next, nutritional periodization must be used and adapted according to the demands of practice, training and competition.

Scientifically, we know nutrition has a large impact on training outcomes and adaptations. 

• Consistently working out, but still consistently eating too many calories? You're not going to lose weight.

• On a hypertrophy program but you're not consuming enough protein? You're not going to get big!

• Not drinking enough water? You'll become dehydrated and performance will suffer.

• Going low carb and constantly training with high intensity? You're not going to achieve the high intensity endurance you want.

• etc....

How exactly it affects all these training outcomes and their subtle nuances,are still not clear as research in this field is still relatively new.

There's a review article on this topic that just came out yesterday (Mar 22nd 2017), titled "Periodized Nutrition For Athletes" by Asker Jeukendrup, a respected nutrition-researcher and Professor from the Netherlands. In the article, Jeukendrup discusses the historical aspects of nutrition and diet as they relate to training and exercise, and also lays down the foundation on what periodized nutrition means and what it's role is. He reviews an impressive list of various nutritional methods such as training on low carbohydrates, high carbohydrate diets, ketogenic diets and also a few supplements.

Here is the list below:

Without trying to repeat too much of what Jeukendrup says in the review paper (I highly urge you to read it if you're serious about improving your knowledge on nutrition - again here is the LINK : OPEN ACCESS), I wanted to talk about a few of the methods, particularly the more popular ones related to mainstream nutrition and dieting.

Some of the methods listed above might be considered "fad diets" in some circles; there has been a lot of talk about fasted cardio, is which essentially training low - training fasted, and ketogenic diets lately. Specifically, how they don't work and how they're bullshit and no one should be on them. While they might be right in some circumstances, its always good to have a change of perspective and see in which scenarios these nutritional methods can be beneficial. It's all about context.

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fasted cardio (Train low - training fasted)

Fasted cardio, or performing a cardio-endurance activity in the morning without having breakfast, has been touted to help burn fat and help trainees lose weight by forcing your body to use more of your "stubborn" fat as energy during exercise. Unfortunately, consistently working out with an empty stomach can be a terrible choice.

For most trainees, fasted cardio will simply feel terrible and their workouts suffer, causing them to exercise less intensely and expend less calories than they would normally. Since we know that weight and fat loss is primarily driven by calorie balance, the form and method of cardio that allows us to consistently burn off a high amount of calories and can be sustainable for the trainee, is the best form of cardio. For a lot of people, this means a snack or light meal prior to a workout, and exercising at various different intensities to keep things fun and interesting.

Fasted cardio is popular amongst bodybuilders, and people still do lose weight performing fasted cardio, does this mean fasted cardio is useless at best?
For the fitness and weight loss demographic, yes. But remember, context matters. Fasted cardio can be a nutritional method for amateur and professional endurance athletes to improve their endurance.

The sleep low method is a good example of a fasted cardio method (sleep low method studies - study link #1 here, #2 here), where the objective is to eliminate carbohydrate intake prior to sleeping, and fasting up to your morning training session. Training in the absence of carbohydrate (almost) or with a low-carbohydrate availability in your muscles or your liver, can promote the expression of certain genes like AMPK to amplify the adaptations from endurance training, like increaesed mitochondria and oxidative enzymes. However, there's a caveat.

These adaptations are amplified only if training is done at the lower intensities, the aerobic zones in which fat is the primary fuel source.  The sleep low method does not work and can be detrimental if the morning fasted cardio session consists of prolonged moderate intensity exercise or high intensity intervals, as carbohydrate/glucose is a much more preferred source during harder efforts of cardio training. Sleeping low or performing fasted training sessions will greatly reduce the quality of your workouts and the progress you'll make. Since not all training sessions will be high-intensity in nature, training fasted or on low glycogen can actually be applicable in some scenarios.

Proponents of fasted cardio believes training while hungry will help improve mental toughness, this is particularly popular in combat sports. I believe there are other ways to improve mental toughness without reducing the effectiveness of your training sessions though.

Now we start to see the carryover and the synergy between training periodization and nutritional periodization.

Doing block periodization and you're in a very high-volume, low-intensity endurance block? It might be effective to try out low-carb methods for the training block. 

Peaking for a competition that requires high intensity intervals? Probably a smart idea to carb up.

Certain methods work for certain groups of people. Just because a diet works for you, doesn't mean it'll work for someone else, and just because a diet DOESN'T work for you, doesn't mean it won't be effective for someone else. 

Ketogenic diet

Picture taken from Precision Nutrition.

We just talked about low-carbing or fasting before workouts. How about going low carb for a few months? For life?. Enter the ketogenic diet.

By significantly reducing the amount of daily carbohydrate intake (<50g), we go into a state of ketosis, where our body utilizes fats and ketones as your primary fuel source. Sounds similar to the fasted cardio method, but this takes an athlete several weeks to become fat-adapted, therefore affecting exercise and body composition on the longer-term. Is it useful? Is it effective?

We can look at it from different angles:

Keto for someone looking to lose weight:

In this situation, we have to take into consideration their ability to sustain a diet with low-carbs. Many of the foods today world contain carbohydrates and it is often hard to skip meals with your friends and family. Consuming a bit too many carbs can bring you out of ketosis and make you feel worse. You don't want to be in no-man's land - where you're not consuming enough carbs to fuel your daily life and exercise, and where you're consuming too many carbs to be in a ketogenic-state.

Diet sustainability is a big factor, paired with the fact that trainees still have to be eating in a calorie deficit. Knowing what fat and protein sources to eat is also something that must be learned if a keto diet is to be sustained in a healthy manner. Many people can't effectively lose weight and keep that weight off with a ketogenic diet. The ones that can, great for them. Find what works for you in terms of weight loss. I recommend reading or buying "The Ketogenic Diet" by Lyle McDonald, he has written extensively on this topic and how to properly go on a ketogenic diet for fat loss, performance and body composition goals.
 

Keto for a competitive athlete:

Jeukendrup's review paper and numerous other studies state that a keto athlete has dramatically increased fat utiliziation ability and upregulated enzymes involved in fat oxidation. However, some of the same studies that showed there was no improved performance effects regardless of the fact fat oxidation potential was increased.

There are a lot of successful keto athletes though, it just depends on the type of sport. 

Like I alluded to earlier, exercises or sports that utilize lower heart rates and intensities will pair best with a low-carb method or approach. While fat isn't a quick source of energy like glucose and phosphocreatine is, it can provide a lot of energy, 9kcal/g. This is viable for sports that are low intensities in nature but require a lot of energy, such as ultra-marathons and other long endurance events. 

This is not to say a calorie-matched high carb diet won't be more beneficial. Ketogenic athletes have shown to have a reduced ability to utilize carbohydrates as the enzymes related to carb metabolism are compromised when going on prolonged periods of carb restriction. Not so great for many team sports or endurance events that require repeated short bursts of high-intensity. 

edit: A 2017 study looking at race walkers on a ketogenic diet showed reduced economy, impairing performance. <Study here>

Supplements and drugs

By far the most popular method to improve fitness and performance goals. Supplements are the first thing many people and athletes turn to as they are marketed to quickly improve performance, help build muscle and shred fat. 

There are a lot of ergogenic supplements that have been studied extensively (have to plug Examine.com here, best website for information and research regarded supplements) to be shown to have health and fitness benefits, protein supplements, creatine, Vitamin D3, beta-alanine, to name a few.

There are also many supplements that have been shown to underdeliver, and are ineffective. Some of which are used incorrectly, but most of which flat out don't work as claimed to.

Supplements and drugs can also reduce training adaptations and be detrimental to performance, like antioxidants and anti-inflammatory drugs.

Everyone should always be skeptical when it comes to supplement, to due it's unregulated nature and often times skewed research results. Take everything with a grain of salt and remember to master the basics before considering taking a shelf full of pills and powders.

From my article on pyramids in fitness and nutrition.

Supplement usage should be considered on a case by case basis, with context in mind. 
 

Concluding thoughts

Fitness and performance is not 80% training, 20% nutrition, or whatever.

It is 100% training and 100% nutrition, they work synergistically and are co-dependent. Training outcomes depend on the fuel you're putting into your body as much as nutritional interventions and methods depend on the your training goal and demands. 

The better sport nutritionists understand training periodization, the better nutrition can be provided according to the demands of the athletes. The more well-versed strength & conditioning coaches are in nutrition, they better they can influence the performance and recvoery of the athletes.

Keep this in mind when evaluating and considering supplements and diets. Be on the look out for more interesting research papers on sports nutrition in the years to come!

5-Part Periodization Series Links:
Read Part 101: Introduction
Read Part 201: Training Variation
Read Part 202: Training Effect & Phases
Read Part 301: Review of Periodization Models
Read Part 401: The Complexities and Problems of Periodization Theory

Periodization 202: Training Phases, Residual & Cumulative Training Effects

Periodization, the systematic planning of exercise and athletic training. It is one of the cornerstones of high level sports and physical performance and without it, training has no context and no direction.

This series will cover the big picture as well as dive into the small nuances of what makes periodization such an important topic to learn for any aspiring strength & conditioning coach or high performance trainer. 

This third part will discuss cumulative and residual training effects as well as the phases of training (off, pre, in-season).

~1800 words; 8-16 minute read

Read Part 101: Introduction
Read Part 201: Training Variation
Read Part 202: Training Effect & Phases
Read Part 301: Review of Periodization Models
Read Part 401: The Complexities and Problems of Periodization Theory

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Training variation recap

As discussed in Part 2 (201), training stimuli can be described to fit a general-to-specific paradigm, where specific qualities are movements, mental states and physical attributes that are seen in the sport or competition the athlete or trainee is preparing for; while general qualities are variations of sport-specific attributes that builds the base to allow specific qualities to flourish in the long-term. Along with this general-to-specific paradigm, some physical attributes and motor skills are thought to be better developed in a sequential manner; either from a general-to-specific or simple-to-complex paradigm. For example, muscle hypertrophy is thought to be better developed prior to maximizing strength and power potential while jump-landing mechanics are better learned before more complex plyometric drills.

The general-to-specific paradigm can be applied to various training and programming variables, from exercise selection, to intensity, volume and frequency. The amount of variation included into a training program differentiates one periodization model from another. Before we take a critical look at each periodization model, we have to understand training effects and the concept of training phases.

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Cumulative & residual training effects

If we run long miles, we build incredible endurance. If we resistance train in high volumes, we experience muscle hypertrophy. When we provide a training stressor, we adapt and experience a training effect. But how come we don't experience muscle hypertrophy right after a training session? How come it takes weeks of training in the 1-5 rep range to get strong?

Training effects can be categorized into: 

• Immediate and Acute effects (the immediate effects of training are: muscle fatigue, energy depletion, increased blood flow to working muscles, immediate changes on blood pressure and heart rate, etc)

• Chronic and Cumulative effects (increased endurance, muscle hypertrophy, increased strength and power, etc over the long term)

• Residual effects (to what extent training adaptations deteriorate after bouts of detraining or deloading)

For the purpose of this article, we'll be discussing cumulative and residual effects as it pertains to periodization and programming.

The cumulative training effect refers to the changes in "physiological capabilities and level of physical/technical abilities resulting from a long-lasting athletic preparation" (source). Vladimir Issurin, an expert and innovator of Block Periodization, notes that there are functional limits to our body's physiological systems, some of which are more trainable than others. Changes in aerobic characteristics from endurance training such as mitochondrial biogenesis and muscle capillarization are more pronounced compared to anaerobic characteristics such as hydrogen ion buffering. 

In contrast, residual training effects refer to how long these adaptations are maintained after an acute withdrawal of training volume load or absolute cessation of training. The table below shows the residual training effects of different physical adaptations: 

The degree of detraining is dependent on several factors.

First, the duration of training before cessation. Residual training effects usually follow an analogy made by Vladmimir Zatsiorsky (author of The Science and Practice Of Strength Training) and Dr. William Kraeme: "soon ripe, soon rotten". This suggest that physical attributes that have been developed for a longer time, can be maintained for longer before there is a decrease in performance following a deload or periods of no training. In a similar view, Nick Winkleman and Issurin note that adaptations that result from a structural change, such as cardiac remodelling, muscle capillizaration and muscle hypertrophy last longer after detraining, compared to adaptations that occur on the enzymatic level such as anaerobic performance,  hydrogen ion buffering and phosphocreatine storage.  A great example of this in the strength training realm and one that many of you can relate to is the fact that many lifters and trainees are able to maintain their muscle mass even with prolonged periods of low volume, high-intensity training. Muscle mass loss is a fear many bodybuilders and fitness enthusiasts have. But if you've spent some quality time building that muscle and protein intake during periods of deload are high, chances are, it won't waste away as quickly or as easy as you think. 

Secondly, the training age and experience of an athlete/trainee also plays a factor in training residuals. Older and more advanced level athletes tend to experience longer residuals because of their higher accumulated training time, in line with the "soon ripe, soon rotten" analogy.

Lastly, the intensity used during retraining or detraining loads plays a role in mediating training residuals as well. The use of moderate to high-intensity training  slows down the rate of detraining, however, volume must be controlled in order to avoid disrupting the recovery process. Residual training effects are of extreme importance especially when using non-traditional periodization methods like block periodization or when managing the training loads for sports team athletes during the in-season or competition-period. Residual training effects also give way to the method of tapering, where volume is decreased to reduce fatigue and allow for the expression of fitness (Fitness-Fatigue Model). 

An extreme example of this is a study carried out by Pritchard et al. 2017, where resistance trained males completed two 4-week training programs followed by either 3.5 or 5.5 days of training cessation. Following this deload (in the form of no training, NOT lowered volume), peak force in the bench press and mid-thigh pull increased above baseline.

Infographic Designed by @YLMSportScience

I will cover the concept of tapering and include some practical methods/recommendations in future articles. 

Since not all physical abilities can be developed concurrently in a periodized program to the same degree, knowledge on the cumulative and residual effects enables coaches to prioritize certain performance measures, allowing them to make better strategic choices when planning a training program. 

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Phases of Training

One of the most agreed upon definitions of periodization is the division of training phases and periods within a training macrocycle. However, the names of these phases vary depending ont he sport, characteristics of the periodization model, and the philosophy of the coach.

Mesocycles/phases commonly follow the names: preparatory phase, competition phase and transitional/active-rest phase. The preparatory phase can further be divided into general preparatory phase (GPP) and specific/specialized preparatory phase (SPP).

PREPARATORY PHASE/OFF-SEASON

In GPP, the training variables are more general and varied in nature, stimulating a wide variety of physical attributes while during the SPP, variables and movements are more sport-specific, aiming to further prepare the athlete for competition.

GPP and SPP can be further broken down into extensive and intensive phases, describing the average intensities of that particular phase. An extensive phase will primarily consist of low-intensity, high volume training, using 50-70% of 1RM during resistance training (muscle endurance and hypertrophy) and working in Zones 2-3 in endurance training (aerobic). While an intensive phase will include a larger amount of medium to high-intensity training using training loads above 75-80% of 1RM and high intensity interval training for conditioning.

The preparatory phase is often called the off-season in seasonal, team-based sports like hockey, soccer/futbol, rugby, etc. This off-season or preparatory phase is where the most aggressive and creative periodization strategies occur to induce the most improvements in performance variables before a competition date or competitive season. Any weaknessess identified from previous training cycles or competitive matches is best addressed here, and any strengths should be further improved.

TRANSITIONAL-1 PHASE/PRE-COMPETITION/PRE-SEASON

After a preparatory training phase and prior to a competition date or competitive season, the volume load of training starts to decrease. This decrease is meant to achieve 2 things:

• Reduce training fatigue so physical and mental attributes are peaked for the upcoming competition/season

• Make time and room to accomodate the upcoming competition schedule, travelling schedule, media obligations and hone in technical sport-specific skills

This phase is called the transitional-1 stage, or the pre-competition phase or pre-season phase. Because of the length of many sports' in-season (lasting anywhere from 4-7 months depending on playoff eligibility), team-based sports should avoid any aggressive tapering methods heading into the competition season, and a more strategically planned maintanence program should be prescribed. This differs from climatic sports like many sports in the Olympics or combat sports like MMA and boxing where the athletes are preparing for a one-day/one-night competition. In those cases, aggressive tapers are necessary as there is less of need to maintain physical attributes post-competition.

COMPETITION PHASE/IN-SEASON

The competition phase, also known as in-season for team-based sports, is dedicated to maintaining specific performance variables such as strength and anaerobic conditioning in order to attenuate any detraining effects an athlete or team may experience. Knowledge of residual effects really plays a big role here. A coach needs to know how many hypertrophy-based, strength-based, power-based and conditioning-based training sessions are needed in order to maintain an acceptable level of fitness when their athletes are busy competing in matches, games and tournaments. A coach must also take into account what physical attributes are already being trained just by competing and playing in games. This may differ from position to position depending on the sport. A goalie in soccer will not utilize the same energy systems as a forward, a post will not have the same energy expenditure as a point guard in basketball. The most time and energy-efficient method of maintaining physical attributes must be performed when athletes have a full competition schedule.

TRANSITIONAL-2 PHASE/ACTIVE REST PERIOD

The transitional-2 or active-rest phase of a yearly training plan is dedicated to complete restoration of the team and athletes, both from a physical and mental standpoint. It is common for athletes to engage in physical activity or exercises that do not relate to their respective sports. However, exercises should be low-impact in nature and should not impede or jeopardize the recovery process if high performance is the goal. The main goal of the transitional-2, active-rest period is to withdraw physical and mental stress and pressure that accumulated from hard training and competition, in order to avoid overtraining and mental burnout.

Rinse & Repeat

When the athletes have undergone adequate rest, they are now ready to re-enter the preparatory training cycle or off-season. These phases or seasonal compartmentalization of training occur on the macrocyclic level, with each phase lasting several months (depending on the sport, of course). There are a few exceptions, like in combat sports, where competition dates differ year to year, usually controlled by fighter rankings, and business-driven promoter decisions. In these sports, rigid periodization models often fail in properly preparing the athletes for competition; therefore a more flexible approach to periodization and training programming must be used. In the next article of this series, we'll dive into specific periodization models and their defining characteristics.

5-Part Periodization Series Links:
Read Part 101: Introduction
Read Part 201: Training Variation
Read Part 202: Training Effect & Phases
Read Part 301: Review of Periodization Models
Read Part 401: The Complexities and Problems of Periodization Theory

Periodization 201: Training variation

Gold-medalist Hammer-thrower Krisztián Pars.

Periodization, the systematic planning of exercise and athletic training. It is one of the cornerstones of high level sports and physical performance and without it, training has no context and no direction.

This series will cover the big picture as well as dive into the small nuances of what makes periodization such an important topic to learn for any aspiring strength & conditioning coach or high performance trainer. 

This second part will cover the concepts of training variation and sequential development of physical attributes.

~1800 words; 8-16 minute read

Read Part 101: Introduction
Read Part 201: Training Variation
Read Part 202: Training Effect & Phases
Read Part 301: Review of Periodization Models
Read Part 401: The Complexities and Problems of Periodization Theory

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Physiological Basis Recap

In the first part of the series, we discussed the 3 paradigms used in training periodization: General adaptation syndrome by Hans Selye, Stimulus-Fatigue-Recovery-Adaptation Model, and the Fitness-Fatigue Model.

Taken from BretConteras.com Example of the SFRA (or SRA) curve in the context of muscle hypertrophy.

To recap, training volume and intensity (stimulus) has to be great enough in order to disrupt homeostasis in an athlete. Through adequate recovery, the athlete will adapt to the training, growing fitter and stronger than pre-training levels. As an athlete progresses, they begin to experience diminishing returns. A training load that once resulted in performance increases, will no longer stimulate the same degree of adaptation. To further improve performance, the stimulus has to gradually increase, in the form of higher volumes, or higher intensities (among other variables); this is the principle of progressive overload. However, some physical qualities can only be progressively overloaded to a certain degree before it is impractical to perform or may be impossible to recover from. When do we stop loading the bar with more weight? When do we stop running more miles? When do we switch exercises?

This next part will cover the concepts of training variation, and the sequential development of physical/motor abilities, 2 key concepts that training periodization is based on.

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Training Variation - The Need For Varied Stimuli

We always hear trainers and coaches say: "beginners can literally do anything and they will get better". Why is this?

In young athletes or athletes with a low training age, training adaptations can be achieved with relatively small amounts of volume load and variation. A wide variety of physical attributes like strength, endurance and coordination can all be trained simultaneously with limited interference because the functional limits of those systems have not been met (low start point). 

At the intermediate and especially the elite level, there is a need for more strategic planning of training stimuli in order to achieve the gains we want to see. High-intensity training required to induce anaerobic adaptations and other top-end adaptations such as speed and rate of force development in advanced-level athletes can only be performed for a certain amount of time before overtraining symptoms begin to appear. A study looking at training intensity and volume in elite endurance athletes found that adding extra sprint or high-intensity days to already-well-trained athletes resulted in little to no improvement in performance variables. This is does not mean high-intensity training doesn't work. This means extra intensification of already-intense training programs yields no improvements, the recovery costs outweigh the benefits. More is not always better. These elite endurance athletes actually performed better when varying their training stimulus by performing low to medium intensity work while strategically performing high-intensity training when and where it counts.

Training monotony, or lack of variation, can lead to increased risk of overtraining, higher risk of injury as well as poor performance. Including the right amount variation in a training program can result in better performance measures, less risk of overuse injuries and a healthier mental state for athletes and trainees. Why do I say "the right amount of variation"? Because if a training program includes too much variations, energy and time is spent on too many different physical attributes and skills, watering down the progress and  improvements that could be made on the more crucial components of performance. If there is too little variation, athletes will experience the detrimental affects of training monotony. 

This is the same reason why powerlifters don't lift exclusively lift in the 1-3 rep range, and why sprinters don't exclusively run 100m every practice. There are benefits to varying your training stimulus - manipulating variables like exercise selection, intensity, volume, movement patterns, etc. In layman's terms: We can't do the same thing all year-round. So what do we do when we're not practicing the competitive movements? How much variation should a training program?

This all depends on the level of athlete, type of athlete, training age, the sport itself, amongst other factors. Different periodization models have their own way of undulating variation, but they all share a common trait: physical attributes and performance measures are developed in a general to specific fashion.

The general - specific continuum

Training stimuli can be categorized into general and specific. Specific qualities are movements, mental states and physical attributes that are seen in the sport the athlete is preparing for, while general qualities are defined as variation of sport-specific attributes that build the base that allows specific qualities to flourish in the long term. Diving further into the details, general and specific qualities can also be divided into: general preparatory exercises (GPE), specific preparatory exercises (SPE), specific developmental exercises (SDE) and competitive exercises (CE). The graphic below outlines the definitions of each classification of exercises and how they play a role in training. It was created by the famous sport scientist Dr. Bondarchuk and is still used as a form of exercise classification in many elite sports today.

Dr. Anatoliy Bondarchuk's Classification of Exercises

Exercise Classification Examples

Using the Bondarchuk exercise classification system, let's create a list of exercises ranging from general to specific for:

1. A Competitive Powerlifter looking to improve their COMPETITION SQUAT; and

2. An MMA Fighter preparing for a fight.

1. POWERLIFTER - COMPETITION SQUAT

Prowler Push - Example of a SPE for a Powerlifter.

General Preparatory Exercise (GPE) - Endurance cycling (or any endurance modality)
Cycling does not imitate the competitive movement (squat), however is used as an all-purpose exercise to develop lower body endurance and promotes recovery.

Specific Preparatory Exercise (SPE) - Prowler Push
The prowler push does not imitate the squat, but uses the same muscle groups (quadriceps, glutes, core) as the squat and can be used to build general work capacity and lower body strength.

Specific Development Exercises (SDE) - Pause Squats For 3-6 reps
The pause squat mimicks the competition squat position but puts more emphasis on the bottom position of the squat. This exercise is specific but is still not considered the competitive movement itself.

Competitive Movement (CE) - Competition Squat for 1-3 reps
The competition squat is exactly what you should be training to directly improve your powerlifting squat performance. The intensity is high enough to mimick the demands of a powerlifting meet 90-100% of 1RM and the movement type and bar position is exactly what is seen in a competition.

2. MMA ATHLETE - FIGHT PREPARATION

GSP performing a barbell snatch - an exercise that can fall under SPE.

General Preparatory Exercise (GPE) - Road work/Running (or any endurance modality)
Running does not imitate the competition movements (striking/grappling/movement) however, is a great tool to build base endurance. An athlete can also use a ergo rower or bike to further promote recovery by avoiding the eccentric actions and muscle damage that comes from TOO much running.

Specific Preparatory Exercise (SPE) - Plyometric Drills (for striking) & Zercher Squats (for grappling)
Plyometric drills like depth jumps or continuous medicine ball slams/throws increase rate of force development/power as well as increases core stiffness and elastic energy transfer needed to improve striking power. While strength exercises like Zercher squats improves maximal lower body and core strength to increase grappling-specific strength.

Specific Developmental Exercises (SDE) - Heavy bag work/Isolated Striking Sparing & Grappling Dummy/BJJ Rolling
These exercises consist of pieces seen in the competitive setting (MMA fight) but developed in isolation. Striking classes or grappling sessions are where fighters hone in their skills in each martial arts discipline.

Competitive Exercise (CE) - Live Full Contact MMA Sparring (5 minute rounds)
Live full contact sparring is the closest a fighter can get to imitating the competitive event itself. Here, a fighter pieces each martial arts discipline together to make it flow and to practice any fight strategies that will be employed on fight night.

As you can see, even movements that don't resemble the competition event can be included into a training program and provide performance benefits. The Bondarchuk exercise classification system is an example of the general to specific continuum paradigm as it relates to exercise selection. The same paradigm can be applied to:

• Intensity (For an Olympic lifter, sets of 10 reps @ 65% of 1RM is considered "general" while sets of 1-2 reps @ 90-100% of 1RM is considered "specific"

• Volume (For a Triathlete, 1km interval sprints is considered "general" while a 20km long-distance run can be considered more "specific")

• Rest Intervals (For a Bodybuilder, 5 min rests can be useful for improving strength and is considered "general", while 2 min rest times is better for maintaining a pump and increase metabolic stress - considered "specific").

• etc...

Overly-specific

In a NSCA seminar on periodization, coach Nick Winkleman argued that there is an uprising of overly-specific, "functional" training methods where some coaches believe that only exercises that resembles sport-specific movements will increase improvement. An example of this is the infamous ladder drills that field-based athletes love to perform.

Some coaches mistakenly believe that doing copious amounts of agility ladder drills will improve the in-game footwork of their athletes. These predetermined agility drills create unrealistic footwork that often have a poor transfer over to the sport itself. While they should not be completely avoided, these agility drills must be carefully prescribed.

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Sequential development of physical attributes

In line to the general-to-specific paradigm, the concept of periodization is also based on the fact that various physical attributes are better developed in a sequential manner. Aerobic characteristics are thought to be better developed before anaerobic ones in endurance training, while muscle hypertrophy is thought to be developed prior to strength and power acquisition. 

Let's use the concept of sequential development and the general-to-specific paradigm for improving sprint performance in an Olympic sprinter:

A front squat or hip thrust can be used as a general movement to develop maximal strength, which will set the base and carry over to more specialized movements like a hang clean or trap bar jump to develop explosive strength. This explosive strength can then be used to develop more sport-specific movements such as assisted or resisted-sprint acceleration drills. This sequential development of exercise selection is suggested to be more beneficial than using acceleration drills alone, or solely using front squats or hip thrusts to improve sprint performance. Again, by performing a variation of strategically-picked general developmental exercises, we widen the base of the athlete to allow more specific qualities to flourish in the long term or on competition date.

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Concluding thoughts on variation and sequential development

The time or phases spent developing each attribute in the sequential hierarchy or the amount of variation included in a training plan is what differentiates one periodization model from another. How much time should be be spent on building muscle mass if maximal power output is the goal? Should a powerlifter train the squat, bench, deadlift all the time with a high frequency (ex: Sheiko) or should they use a wide variety of accessories to target weak muscles or weak points (ex: Westside Method). Training periodization and planning has a lot of grey areas; these are ongoing debates sports scientists and coaches have on a daily basis.Read Part 101: IntroductionRead Part 201: Training Variation Read Part 202: Training Effect & PhasesRead Part 301: Review of Periodization ModelsRead Part 401: The Complexities and Problems of Periodization Theory

5-Part Periodization Series Links:
Read Part 101: Introduction
Read Part 201: Training Variation
Read Part 202: Training Effect & Phases
Read Part 301: Review of Periodization Models
Read Part 401: The Complexities and Problems of Periodization Theory

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Periodization 101

Periodization, the systematic planning of exercise and athletic training. It is one of the cornerstones of high level sports and physical performance and without it, training has no context and no direction.

This series will cover the big picture as well as dive into the small nuances of what makes periodization such an important topic to learn for any aspiring strength & conditioning coach or high performance trainer. 

This first part will talk about the history of periodization and how the concept came to practice, as well as the true definition of periodization and the physiological basis behind physical training and planning. 

~1900 words ; 10-15 minute read

Read Part 101: Introduction
Read Part 201: Training Variation
Read Part 202: Training Effect & Phases
Read Part 301: Review of Periodization Models
Read Part 401: The Complexities and Problems of Periodization Theory

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Introduction To Periodization

Many articles posted online about training periodization revolve around how to set up your training to "bust through plateaus" and hit your "biggest PRs ever". While periodization certainly does help you in doing both, many authors neglect to write about the "whys" and are inconsistent when using training terminologies. What's the difference between linear and daily undulating (DUP)? What's block training? I thought blocks were called phases? How do I linearly progress man? A lot of terms get thrown around without proper context, and unless you have some background in exercise science or an in-depth understanding of exercise physiology, it can get confusing. To play devil's advocate though, there are many concepts and training methods that share different names; usually due to that fact that different researchers and difference coaches around the world use them and have made them popular in their own training niche or sport.

Quick example: tempo training in the world of running (tempo running) consists of a more fast-paced run usually right at an athlete's lactate-threshold. However in cycling, tempo training is done below anywhere from 10-15 beats below an athlete's lactate-threshold. What seems like a small adjustment can be the difference between increased endurance, or poor recovery and overtraining. This may be a specific example, but I hope you get the idea.

Before we even get into the types of periodization and how to manipulate training variables, we must know WHY things are set up the way they are. Training terminology must be consistent and training modalities need to be contextualized. 

With all that said, let's jump into it.

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The History Of Periodization

How did the concept of periodization come to fruition and why was it invented?

Sport training theories and methodologies have been developed throughout human history, dating back to the 2nd century AD, notably by Roman philosopher and physician Galen and ancient Greek scientist Philostratus. In order to achieve spectacular results and performances at the ancient Olympic games, these 2 gentlemen developed their own training theories which have laid down the foundation for contemporary training periodization.

Galen created the idea of building strength without speed, developing speed without strength, then using intense exercises to combine the 2 to create the most powerful athlete possible. Philostartus on the other hand, constructed the idea compartmentalizing training protocols:

"compulsory 10-month period of purposeful training followed by 1 month of centralized preparation... prior to the Olympic Games".

Sounds an awful lot like the off-season and in-season training camps of today, right?

Let's fast forward a few thousand years.

In the 20th century, the contributions from a factory supervisor named Frederick Winslow Taylor further paved the way for modern training management. As the founder of the "Principles of Scientific Management", Frederick believed there was a systematic way to organize and plan in order to achieve the best outcomes in the most efficient manner. The appeal for the scientific method came from several different driving forces: the fact that the explanatory power of the scientific method resonated with the society, and the ingrained human attraction for simplicity, rules and automatized solutions. What originally was a paradigm developed for the engineering and automobile industry, has given way to exercise and sports performance planning.

How do we achieve the best performance possible on any given date? How do we create a training system that works for a particular group of athletes? How do we improve performance given our current resources and limitations? 

These are the questions periodization attempts to answer for a variety of different sports, athletes and scenarios.

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Popularization of Periodization

"All World Records Shall Be Ours!" A Soviet poster from 1948.

The concept of training periodization was not developed on a large scale until the 1950's, where former USSR teachers, coaches and scientists called for separate training periods, general and specialized phases. These phases, encompassing the training of basic athletic abilities, cardiovascular fitness and strength, were applied in a sport performance as well as physical education setting. When numerous studies on exercise physiology and human biology were published to back these concepts, sport scientist Lev P. Matveyev compiled the massive amount of data. Matveyev is to this day, recognized as the founder of the traditional theory of periodization (commonly and wrongfully called linear periodization - more on this later).

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The definition of periodization

Although there have been several models of periodization developed since Matveyev's traditional model, it is widely agreed upon that the definition of periodization is the divison of training periods and the principle of cyclical training where programming variables such as intensity, volume, frequency, rest, and exercise selection among others, are strategically manipulated and varied in order to reduce the risk of injury and maximize sport performance for individual athletes or sports teams.

Periodization takes into consideration the level, training age and genetic predispositions of an athlete in order to avoid overtraining and allow them to peak for one or several competitions. In a periodized training plan, certain time-frames exists for the manipulation of programming variables, these time frames are termed macrocycle, mesocycle and microcycle.

A macrocycle is considered the longest duration of the training cycle, usually several months in length or even a few years. For example, a quadrennial macrocycle describes a 4-year long program used to prepare an athlete or sport team for the Olympic games. A macrocycle is comprised of several mesocycles, which are a few months in length and can be defined as a prepatory, competition or transitional phase. Lastly, mesocycles are further divided into microcycles which deals with training on the weekly-basis.

Macrocycle (months to years)

Mesocycles (weeks to months)

Microcycles (training on the week to week basis)

Using this definition, many popular strength programs that you and I are familiar with (Stronglifts 5x5, Texas Method, Starting Strength, etc), ARE periodized. Periodization does not imply some fancy, advanced, over-the-top program meant for elite athletes... although it can be. Periodization simply means your training plan is divided and organized in a way that makes sense and is in line with the nature of human biology and exercise physiology. The difference between a periodized program for a beginner vs. an elite athlete lies in the number of variables that are controlled for and manipulated. A weight training enthusiast can see results with the simple manipulation of intensity and volume, whereas elite athletes will need more advanced manipulation of loading schemes, exercise selection and nutritional intake in order for them to achieve those incremental gains in performance.

Periodization can be as simple, or as complex as you need it to be. That's the beauty of it.

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Physiological Basis Behind Periodization

What is periodization based on? How do we determine what variables to manipulate and how to manipulate them to our advantage in terms of training adaptations?

The answer comes from the understanding human physiology and how we respond to stress. Here are 3 of the overarching principles and paradigms that make exercise and sports planning possible: General adaptation syndrome (GAS), Stimulus-Fatigue-Recovery-Adaptation (SFRA) and Fitness-Fatigue Model (F-F)

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) is a model of stress created by Hans Selye to describe and stereotype the physiological responses of the nervous and endocrine system to a stressor. GAS is categorized into 3 stages: alarm stage, resistance stage and the exhaustion stage. During the alarm stage, the body reacts to the stressor by releasing hormones in order to restore homeostasis. The resistance stage, which can also be referred to the adaptation stage, is where physiological defenses are strengthened in anticipation to future stressors. The exhauastion stage is reached when the stressor still persists and the body does not have sufficient resources to defend or repair itself.

Han Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) illustrated.

The GAS syndrome as shown by a mouse reaction to a cat.

In relation to exercise and sports training, a disruption in homeostasis (in the form of training stress) manifests itself in the form of muscle soreness, fatigue, and a temporary decrease in performance. If the stress is maintained without proper recovery, overtraining can occur. However, if an athlete recovers adequately after a period of stress, or if the stressor is temporarily withdrawn, performance can rebound and increase beyond training levels; this is often coined the term supercompensation and is another driving principle behind periodization.

Stimulus-Fatigue-Recovery-Adaptation (SFRA)

GAS was originally created to describe a response to a general stressor, however has been critisized that it was not created specifically sports training. This resulted in a more refined concept, the SFRA model, to explain training stress and adaptations.

Taken from BretContreras.com. Example of the SFRA (or SRA) curve in the context of muscle hypertrophy. 

Although similar to the GAS model, the SFRA model concept states that training stress is dependent on many factors such as intensity and volume of training. The greater the intensity or volume of the training, the greater the stressor is, resulting in a higher amount of fatigue AND adaptation. Contrastingly, if the intensity or volume of training is insufficient, fatigue will not accumulate but training adaptations will not be made! As an athlete, you must introduce yourself to a progressively larger and larger training stimulus, not too small where you won't see any benefits from it, or not too large that you're unable to recovery from it.

In layman's terms: every time you perform a training session (stimulus), you start to build up fatigue in the form of muscle soreness and lowered energy levels. As you consume enough food and get enough sleep (recovery), you are able to recover from your workout and come back fitter and stronger than before (adaptation). In the strength training realm, these concepts are commonly described as "progressive overloads" where you're looking to increase the total amount weight lifted or total number of reps lifted every workout or every week, and "rest days" where you back off on the training stress in order to give your body time to recover. 

Fitness-Fatigue Model

The fitness-fatigue (F-F) model suggests that fitness and fatigue are inversely related, where strategies that maximize fitness and decrease fatigue will be the most optimal to improving sport performance. It is thought that when we introduce a training stressor, fitness adaptations and the accumulation of fatigue occur simultaneously. It is not until the stressor is withdrawn, where fatigue dissipates and fitness is increased. Unlike the previous 2 paradigms, the F-F model is able to differentiate between specific training stressors. An exercise that stresses the neuromuscular system (heavy deadlifts) may not neccessarily affect the aerobic energy system to the same degree as a 10km run would. A well-known example of the F-F model is the strategy of tapering; where training volume is dialed back in order to eliminate muscular fatigue and express maximal strength, power and endurance.

Note that all 3 of these paradigms are used simultaneously in modern day training periodization. Thanks to the access to technology we have today, the ability to monitor training variables and training stress has made these concepts more important and more effective. Even with that said, there are still people who believe periodization does not work any better than non-periodized programs or is a waste of time or practical to implement. Their beliefs holds some truths, however are still misguided at the end of the day. I will go into detail in later parts of this series. 

For now, soak in the information and take a look at how your current training fits the concepts discussed. Thanks for reading!

5-Part Periodization Series Links:
Read Part 101: Introduction
Read Part 201: Training Variation
Read Part 202: Training Effect & Phases
Read Part 301: Review of Periodization Models
Read Part 401: The Complexities and Problems of Periodization Theory

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Most Effective Way To Improve Lifting Technique

MOST EFFECTIVE WAY TO IMPROVE LIFTING TECHNIQUE

In strength sports, lifting technique is one of the most important traits in creating a strong, injury-free athlete. Lifters of all levels and experiences will benefit from improving technique. 

If you've ever lifted heavy, you'll notice at a certain % of your 1RM, your form starts to deteriorate. Let's call this the technical breakdown threshold (TBT).

For example, if your 1 rep max on the barbell back squat is 315lbs, and your form starts to breakdown significantly when you lift weights over 250lbs (~80%). 80% is your technical breakdown threshold.

Generally speaking, beginner and intermediate lifters will have a lower TBT compared to more advanced and experienced lifters. Case in point: Have you ever noticed that some top level lifters look relatively calm and controlled during 1 rep max attempts? While less-experienced lifters will show more form break down during 1RM attempts. 

So how do we use the TBT to help us improve technique? Here's how to do it:

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Volume Progression Right Below Your TBT

To improve technique and form over the long term, we must start right at, or right below your TBT. For most of you reading this, I recommend using a load 5% lower than your TBT and progressively overloading at that intensity by either increasing sets, or increasing reps over the span of a training cycle.

Using the same example above (315lbs 1RM), and a TBT of 250lbs (~80%), an 8-week training cycle might look like this:

Week 1: 3x5 @ 235lbs (75%)
Week 2: 3x6 @ 235lbs
Week 3: 3x7 @ 235lbs
Week 4: 3x8 @ 235lbs
Week 5: 3x5 @ 245lbs
Week 6: 4x5 @ 245lbs
Week 7: 5x5 @ 245lbs
Week 8: 1xTechnical AMRAP @ 250lbs

*technical AMRAP means performing as many reps as you can with acceptable form, be honest with yourself.

Let's Break It Down (No Pun Intended)

During Weeks 1-4, you'll be working with 5% under your TBT, which is 235lbs (75% of current 1RM). Each week you'll be adding 1 rep to each set. This slight increase in volume over the span of 4 weeks will allow you to practice and dial in your technique.

During Weeks 5-7, you'll be working with a weight JUST under your TBT (245lbs). By now, your form should have improved drastically (hopefully) enough to perform sets at 7-8 RPE at a weight thats near to your TBT. The goal here is then to be able to maintain proper form over the increasing number of sets.

On Week 8, you'll be performing a technical AMRAP @ your TBT (250lbs). Put the number of reps performed into a 1RM calculator... This will be your new max.

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INCREASING FREQUENCY

Increasing frequency is another good way to increase volume of the lift you're trying to improve. For example, if your squat needs work, I recommend increasing your frequency to up to 3 times a week. You can work at different rep ranges on each day, but keep the intensity low. The more quality reps you can perform and the more bad reps you avoid, the better.  Using the same 315lb 1RM in the examples above, 1 week of training may look like this: 

Day 1: 3x6 @ 235lbs (75%)
Day 3: 3x12 @ 190lbs (~60%) 
Day 5: 4x3 @ 235lbs (~75%) 

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The philosophy

These are only examples, as there are other strategies that can be used here. However, the overarching philosophy of this method should be:

1. Consistently working with a sub-maximal weight that you are comfortable with.
   

2. Keeping intensity relatively the same (below your TBT) and progressive overloading by increasing reps or sets, NOT intensity (weight).
   

3. Spending plenty of time performing reps at the same intensity will make you more aware of technical changes and improvements from week to week.
   

4. Use this early on in your lifting career or ASAP if form breakdown is an issue for you.
   

5. Use this in the "off-season" and not as preparation for a powerlifting meet.

Please note that the set and rep schemes listed above are specific to the % of 1RM at which technique breaks down in the example I used. 

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Off-Season Program for Size and Athleticism

 I wanted to create a program for myself that incorporated Olympic weightlifting exercises once or twice a week without sacrificing time on bodybuilding and powerlifting movements. What initially started as a simple training split, developed into a well-rounded program for general strength, hypertrophy and athleticism. This program is by no means beginner-friendly; it requires you to have at least some experience with compound exercises (bench press, squats, deadlift, dips, overhead press etc) and Olympic weightlifting movements (power snatches, power cleans). In this blog post, I will do an overview of the whole program and highlight the details and nuances of each training mesocycle.

Program Overview

Training-Split Layout

• MONDAY (Full body): Olympic Lifts w/ Front squats, Abs

• TUESDAY (Upper body): Chest, Back, Biceps

• WEDNESDAY: ACTIVE REST

• THURSDAY (Lower body): Lower body with quadricep/squat focus

• FRIDAY (Upper body): Shoulders, Chest, triceps

• SATURDAY (Lower body): Lower body with posterior chain focus, Back

• SUNDAY: Rest

3 Mesocycles

• Weeks 1-3 is considered a high-volume hypertrophy block

• Week 4 is an active rest/deload

• Weeks 5-9 is considered a strength block (with Week 9 being a back off on volume (not a full deload)

• Weeks 10-12 is a power and conditioning block

Frequency

• Unlike a typical bodybuilding bro-split, frequency is moderate - high to ensure muscle protein synthesis (MPS) is kept above baseline for each body part throughout the whole week
  

• The moderate-high frequency done in this program is also good for motor learning/technique-acquisition and improvement, as well as neuromuscular efficiency (with the exception of the Olympic lifts, which I will address in the final section of this post)
  

• Quadriceps, glutes and hamstrings are all being hit 2-3 times a week throughout the whole program
  

• Chest and triceps are being hit at least twice a week
  

• Back and pulling movements are being done at least twice a week
  

• Shoulders (specifically the lateral head of the deltoid) are only being hit once a week, but it should be noted that the anterior (front) and posterior (back) delts are stimulated on other days via pulling and pushing exercises anwyays
  

• Ab exercises are included in the program at least once a week

Placement of Rest Days

• Rest days are placed strategically to mitigate muscle soreness (delayed onset muscle soreness - DOMs) and ensure adequate muscle recovery
  

• Wednesday's rest day is to ensure the lifter is recovered before 3 back-to-back sessions (Thursday, Friday, Saturday).
  

• Monday is definitely the most technique-intensive day out of the whole program, therefore adequate muscle recovery (reducing DOMs) must be made during Sunday's rest day in order to reduce injuries and increase skill acquisition.
  

• Adequate rest in between 2 sessions that stimulate the same muscles (eg: Chest is being stimulated on Tuesday, then again on Friday. Wednesday and Thursday gives a chance for the chest to recover; right when MPS of the chest drops back to baseline on Thursday, Friday's session will increase it once again up until Sunday/Monday)
  

• Lower volume works requires less time to recover from (Thursday's posterior chain work is pretty low volume, therefore the posterior chain can be worked again on Saturday without any decreases in performance)
  

• Spacing muscle groups out evenly throughout the week is essentially taking advantage of the Stimulus-Recovery-Adaptation curves of each muscle (concept taken from NSCA, Dr. Yuri Verkhoshanksy and Dr. Mike Israetel).

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Weeks 1-3

Training Variables (Volume, Intensity, Frequency)

• Week 1 starts off easy; volume ramps up every week, adding a set to most exercises will keeping the weights the same
  

• Volume peaks at Week 3 (Week 3 should be brutal, you should be sore)
  

• Since Week 1 is fairly easy, Wednesday will be an active rest.
  

• Weeks 2-3 will be much harder and more taxing, therefore Wednesday will be a full rest (no lifting/little to no physical activity, but do stretch and foam roll)

Exercise Selection

• More unilateral work (1 legged RDLs, Bulg. Split Squats, 1 Arm Pulling etc) in order to eliminate muscle imbalances and improve balance/coordination
  

• There is more isolation and arm exercises (Biceps, leg extensions, rear delts etc) compared to Weeks 5-9
  

• Muscle snatches and muscle cleans are used for the first 3 weeks to build up the shoulder musculature and to practice technique (bar acceleration, triple extension) in preparation for power snatches and cleans.
  

• Snatch grip deadlifts with slow eccentrics are used to practice lat activation and increase hamstring hypertrophy in preparation for the conventional deadlifts in Weeks 5-9 (strength phase)

Main Focus

• Weeks 1-3 are important for dialing in technique and setting a good base for the strength and power phases of the 12-week program
  

• The focus should be on work capacity, and volume. Do not worry TOO much on weight progression, stay within 8-8.5 RPE (What is RPE? This is covered in the FAQs at the end of this overview) for most compound movements. Feel free to go to failure and apply a supersets/dropsets to isolation/accessory exercises.
  

• Again, Week 3 should be very high volume. It should feel brutal and you should feel beat up.

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Weeks 5-9

Training Variables (Volume, Intensity, Frequency)

• Overall all weekly volume is decreased in the strength phase because the intensity is increased
  

• Squat frequency goes up from 2x/week to 3x/week (Monday - Front Squat, Thursday - Back Squat, Saturday - Pause Back Squat)
  

• Deadlift frequency stays at 1x/week, but stiff legged deadlifts are introduced in Thursday workouts
  

• Focus on weight progressions through the weeks (eg: Week 8's 4x5 should be heavier than Week 5's 5x5 sets)
  

• Volume drops on Week 9 in preparation for the power and conditioning phase in Weeks 10-12
  

• Frequency of Power cleans increases from 1x/week to 2x/week (more practice!)

Exercise Selection

• The focus shifts from dumbbell work into barbell work so you can handle more weight (Dumbbell RDL's into Barbell Stiff Legged Deadlifts, Incline Dumbbell Bench Press turns into Incline Barbell Bench Press)
  

• A switch from muscle snatch and cleans to power snatch and power cleans
  

• If you cannot get a hold of a glute-ham raise machine, do weighted lower back extensions
  

• Conventional deadlifts replace snatch grip deadlifts (again, so you can handle more weight)
  

• For triceps on Fridays, I recommend any of the following compound movements: 1) Close-grip bench press 2) JM Press 3) Dips 4) Lying Tricep Extensions (Rippetoe variation)

Main Focus

• The main focus for Weeks 5-9 is to move heavy weight while still maintaining proper form (however, one should always seek technique improvement)
  

• Stay within 8-9 RPE for compound exercises in Weeks 5-8. Stay within 7-8 RPE for Week 9.

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Weeks 10-12

Training Variables (Volume, Intensity, Frequency)

• Volume is very low to keep fatigue low. Low fatigue is the best environment to express and practice athletic characteristics such as power, speed and strength
  

• Intensity should be high, you should be moving very heavy weight (>85% of your 1 rep max) for a few reps and sets
  

• Frequency of the main lifts do not change
  

• Conditioning exercises can be done by feel, the sets and reps written down are very rough, do what feels good. Stop when you notice a large decrease in your speed and effort

Exercise Selection

• This power and conditioning block focuses on a lot on heavy lifting, mixed with explosive power movements
  

• Introduction of medicine ball exercises are good for working on rotational power (transverse plane of motion)
  

• Box jumps can include any variation of your liking, normal box jumps, rotation box jumps, depth jumps etc.
  

• Snatchs and/or cleans can be substituted by power snatches and power cleans if your snatch and clean technique is not yet up to par

Main Focus

• The main focus of Weeks 10-12 is lifting close to your one rep max (stay within 9-9.5 RPE), being explosive in your power movements (medicine ball slams, jumps, sprints) and anaerobic conditioning

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Final Points

• Because there is at least one day of Olympic weightlifting exercises in each week of the program, athletes do not have to worry much about losing their athletic ability while trying to build muscle
  

• The periodization (sets x reps over the span of the 12 weeks) provided in the program is rough and very general. Feel free to change training variables to fit your priorities/goals.
  

• The main focus of this program is the training split and phases.
  

• Exercises can be substituted in but try to stick with the main themes of each day (training-split)
  

• Again this program is not intended for beginner-lifters. Some experience with barbell and resistance training is recommended.
  

• A high volume block transitioning to a higher frequency block is a concept I've taken from block periodization an a concept I've used from Greg Nuckol's newest hypertrophy article "Grow Like a New Lifter Again"

PROS 

• Lots of variation in exercise selection, useful for program adherence and training many different movement patterns
  

• Higher frequency of compound lifts will be beneficial for muscle hypertrophy and strengthening of the nervous system
  

• Speed of exercise execution varies, wide variety of exercise tempo (Eccentrics, pauses, explosive/power movements)
  

• Rest days are strategically placed to improve performance and to fit the stimulus-recovery curves of each movement/muscles

CONS

• This is a GENERAL program for size and athleticism and like all general programs, this program may not fit the needs of all sports.
  

• Olympic lifting movements are not trained frequent enough in this program so do not expect large improvements in form. Lifters looking for a program to specifically improve their Olympic weightlifting should look elsewhere. Here are some to get you started: Catalyst Athletics - Breaking Muscle - Pendlay - Russian Approach (via All Things Gym) - Dan John
  

• Although this program does include the powerlifts (big 3 compound exercises), it does not prepare you for a powerlifting competition. Lifters looking for a powerlifting-specific program should look elsewhere. Here are some to get you started: GC Strength & Conditioning Individualized 12-Week Program & Coaching - Candito Training HQ - Sheiko Powerlifting Programs (via Joe Skopec) - Connor Lutz Training Template - Juggernaut Method - 5/3/1 - Cube Method.

Be mindful of comments added to exercises (indicated by a red triangle in the top right of an excel block). They contain useful information about the particular exercise.

GOT ANY CONSTRUCTIVE CRITICISM? GOT ANY QUESTIONS? COMMENT BELOW OR EMAIL ME AT geoffrey@gcperformancetraining.com

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